Reason and necessity: Thucydides iii 9–14, 37–48

1978 ◽  
Vol 98 ◽  
pp. 64-78 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. W. Macleod
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Human Error ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
Historical Truth ◽  
The Right

The speeches concerning the Mytilenean revolt in Thucydides III present three speakers trying to justify or commend a decision: they are, in Aristotelian terms, examples of symbuleutic oratory. The purpose of such oratory is naturally to identify the right course of action, to achieve ϵὐβουλία. But Thucydides is writing about facts; he is also intensely aware of human nature, a force more powerful than reason. So his characters cannot be simply models of wisdom. They are human beings, and they feel the pressure of war or empire. Thus the rhetoric which they employ to convince their hearers is for the historian a way of discovering to his readers the limits, or the failures, as well as the powers, of reasoning; and in this exposure of human weakness Thucydides' work is both rationalistic and tragic, an analysis of human error, be it corrigible or otherwise. If, then, he puts into his speakers' mouths the arguments he himself thought they should have used (i 22.1 τὰ δέοντα), he does so in the service of historical truth (i 22.4 τὸ σαφές). Reality is portrayed realistically, through a portrayal of the minds of those who were part of it; for all action must originate from beliefs and be contemplated through them. Further, the complex or problematical nature of reality is mirrored in his speakers' opposing interpretations of the issues at stake.

scholarly journals GenEth: a general ethical dilemma analyzer

2018 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 337-357 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Anderson ◽  
Susan Leigh Anderson
Keyword(s):  
Dynamic Systems ◽  
Ethical Dilemma ◽  
Ethical Dilemmas ◽  
Autonomous Systems ◽  
Inductive Logic ◽  
Turing Test ◽  
Ethical Principles ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
The Right

Abstract We argue that ethically significant behavior of autonomous systems should be guided by explicit ethical principles determined through a consensus of ethicists. Such a consensus is likely to emerge in many areas in which intelligent autonomous systems are apt to be deployed and for the actions they are liable to undertake, as we are more likely to agree on how machines ought to treat us than on how human beings ought to treat one another. Given such a consensus, particular cases of ethical dilemmas where ethicists agree on the ethically relevant features and the right course of action can be used to help discover principles needed for ethical guidance of the behavior of autonomous systems. Such principles help ensure the ethical behavior of complex and dynamic systems and further serve as a basis for justification of this behavior. To provide assistance in discovering ethical principles, we have developed GenEth, a general ethical dilemma analyzer that, through a dialog with ethicists, uses inductive logic programming to codify ethical principles in any given domain. GenEth has been used to codify principles in a number of domains pertinent to the behavior of autonomous systems and these principles have been verified using an Ethical Turing Test, a test devised to compare the judgments of codified principles with that of ethicists.

scholarly journals معاشرے کو فتنوں سے محفوظ رکھنے کے مناہج وتدابیراحادیث نبویہ کی روشنی میں

rahatulquloob ◽  
2020 ◽  
pp. 81-95
Author(s):  
Muhammad Kamran Khan ◽  
Prof Dr Ali Asghar Chishti
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Human Behavior ◽  
Research Paper ◽  
Crucial Issue ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
Human Attitude ◽  
The Right ◽  
And Behavior

The article aims to highlight the methods of avoiding "fitan" in the light of tradit-ions of prophet Muhammad (PBUH), The literature of Hadiths of prophet Muhammad (PBUH) regarding "Fitan" has been discussed by Muhadditheen under the title of "Kitab-ul-Fitan", which deals with the issues caused by intemperate human behavior, self-directed interests, and subsequent endeavors to gratify them. Confrontation, collusion of interests, infighting and so on-are the offshoots of these immoderate human attitude and behavior. Hadiths of Prophet Muhammad are beacon of light; and impart such instructions and guidance in the realm of virtues and vices, which have panacea to uproot all these crookedness and gaps found in human nature and behavior. It has such a celestial message and guidance, which cannot only uproot all evasiveness from human nature, but also to safeguard a society at large. The right understanding and compre-hension of the crux of these Hadiths is paramount and crucial in this regard. Therefore, this research paper deals with this crucial issue and expounds right course of action in this regard. The method of study adopted in this paper is descriptive and analytical.

Toward ensuring ethical behavior from autonomous systems: a case-supported principle-based paradigm

2015 ◽  
Vol 42 (4) ◽  
pp. 324-331 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Anderson ◽  
Susan Leigh Anderson
Keyword(s):  
Ethical Behavior ◽  
Autonomous Systems ◽  
Machine Ethics ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
Complex Process ◽  
Autonomous Machines ◽  
The Right ◽  
Practical Implications

Purpose – This paper aims to propose a paradigm of case-supported principle-based behavior (CPB) to help ensure ethical behavior of autonomous machines. The requirements, methods, implementation and evaluation components of the CPB paradigm are detailed. Design/methodology/approach – The authors argue that ethically significant behavior of autonomous systems can be guided by explicit ethical principles abstracted from a consensus of ethicists. Particular cases of ethical dilemmas where ethicists agree on the ethically relevant features and the right course of action are used to help discover principles needed for ethical guidance of the behavior of autonomous systems. Findings – Such a consensus, along with its corresponding principle, is likely to emerge in many areas in which autonomous systems are apt to be deployed and for the actions they are liable to undertake, as we are more likely to agree on how machines ought to treat us than on how human beings ought to treat one another. Practical implications – Principles are comprehensive and comprehensible declarative abstractions that succinctly represent this consensus in a centralized, extensible and auditable way. Systems guided by such principles are likely to behave in a more acceptably ethical manner, permitting a richer set of behaviors in a wider range of domains than systems not so guided, and will exhibit the ability to defend this behavior with pointed logical explanations. Social implications – A new threshold has been reached where machines are being asked to make decisions that can have an ethically relevant impact on human beings. It can be argued that such machine ethics ought to be the driving force in determining the manner and extent to which autonomous systems should be permitted to interact with them. Originality/value – Developing and employing principles for this use is a complex process, and new tools and methodologies will be needed by engineers to help contend with this complexity. The authors offer the CPB paradigm as an abstraction to help mitigate this complexity.

Rational Decision Making, Dual Processes, and Framing

2011 ◽  
pp. 757-765
Author(s):  
Todd McElroy
Keyword(s):  
Decision Making ◽  
Rational Choice ◽  
Human Nature ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Favorable Outcome ◽  
Rational Decision ◽  
Dual Processes ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
Wait And See ◽  
The Right

Decisions, decisions, decisions, we are constantly faced with them everyday. Should I get out of bed or sleep 10 more minutes? Should I hit the delete key or save as a new document? Should I take the dishes to the sink or wait and see if my spouse will do it? Inherent in most decisions is the tradeoff between some benefit and decrement we may face along with an element of risk. The course of action that we choose to take has always been of interest to scholars. Fitting the principles of decision-making into an a priori developed plan to choose which alternative is “best” is, by and large, what most consider to be rationality. Because the decisions that we make have so much influence in our life, their importance cannot and should not be underestimated. While we cannot always know which decision will eventually hold the greatest benefit, it is an aspect of human nature to gamble on the best option, but only when the gamble seems warranted. Determining what is the “rational” choice allows us to at least rest easy in the assumption that the decisions that we have made are the right ones. Interestingly, as time immortal has shown, making the right or “rational” decision does not always provide the most favorable outcome.

scholarly journals O přirozenosti – a výchově člověka

Envigogika ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Zuzana Svobodová
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Education And Training ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Natural Diversity ◽  
The Right ◽  
Educated Person ◽  
And Training

The article “On the Nature and Education of Man” follows up loosely on the questions put forward in the first issue of the 2016 volume of this journal (Envigogika 2016/XI/1), focusing on questions of (human) nature in the context of education and training. Already in the antiquity, the relation between phenomena such as “education” and “(human) nature” (“culture” and “nature”) was perceived as a relation of tension (paideia vs. fysis, techné vs. fysis, cultura vs. natura). When reflecting the fundamentals of education, this tension is a source of the so-called educational antinomies (Fink 1992: 11–19). In her contribution, Zuzana Svobodová focuses on reason (logos) and affection (eros, filia, agapé) as the kinds of “(human) nature” that are the foundations for cultivating human beings. The educated person is invited to use those (human) natures responsibly and at the right moment (kairos). Then it makes sense to consider the integration and co-creation of a life in harmony – based on natural diversity, using reason and affection, at an appropriate time.

scholarly journals Normative Gaps in the Criminal Law: A Reasons Theory of Wrongdoing

2007 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 102-141 ◽  
Author(s):  
Luis Ernesto Chiesa Aponte
Keyword(s):  
Criminal Law ◽  
Conjoined Twins ◽  
The State ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Populated Area ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
The Right

In this article it is argued that in two controversial homicide cases——severing conjoined twins and downing a hijacked commercial plane headed toward a heavily populated area——it is permissible to kill innocent human beings without having to establish the existence of a claim of justification such as selfdefense or choice of evils. Even though criminal law scholars consider that unjustified conduct is always wrongful, the position defended in the article is that there is a normative gap between an absence of justification and a finding of wrongdoing. This "normative gap defense," which negates wrongdoing without justifying the conduct, is the best way to deal with the troubling homicide cases described above. The normative gap defense is grounded on what is called a "reasons" theory of wrongdoing. According to this theory, the state cannot legitimately prohibit conduct when, in light of the fact that there are powerful utilitarian reasons in favor of performing the act and commanding deontological reasons against performing it, we are in a state of equipoise in which it is impossible for us to determine which course of action is "the right thing to do" (i.e., justified). Under these circumstances, the conduct should be regarded as non——wrongful even though it is unjustified.

Persons Together

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alan L. Mittleman
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Image Of God ◽  
Jewish Tradition ◽  
The Political ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Human Flourishing ◽  
Political Dimensions ◽  
Market Relations ◽  
The Image Of God

This chapter moves into the political and economic aspects of human nature. Given scarcity and interdependence, what sense has Judaism made of the material well-being necessary for human flourishing? What are Jewish attitudes toward prosperity, market relations, labor, and leisure? What has Judaism had to say about the political dimensions of human nature? If all humans are made in the image of God, what does that original equality imply for political order, authority, and justice? In what kinds of systems can human beings best flourish? It argues that Jewish tradition shows that we act in conformity with our nature when we elevate, improve, and sanctify it. As co-creators of the world with God, we are not just the sport of our biochemistry. We are persons who can select and choose among the traits that comprise our very own natures, cultivating some and weeding out others.

ACCESS TO EDUCATION WITH ONLINE LEARNING AND OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES: CAN THEY CLOSE THE GAP?

2008 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine Geith ◽  
Karen Vignare
Keyword(s):  
Online Learning ◽  
Global Education ◽  
Open Educational Resources ◽  
Educational Resources ◽  
Access To Education ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Right To Education ◽  
Education Gap ◽  
The Right ◽  
Compare And Contrast

One of the key concepts in the right to education is access: access to the means to fully develop as human beings as well as access to the means to gain skills, knowledge and credentials. This is an important perspective through which to examine the solutions to access enabled by Open Educational Resources (OER) and online learning. The authors compare and contrast OER and online learning and their potential for addressing human rights “to” and “in” education. The authors examine OER and online learning growth and financial sustainability and discuss potential scenarios to address the global education gap.

Chimeras In Time-Honored Societies

Think India ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 463-466
Author(s):  
TUMMALA. SAI MAMATA
Keyword(s):  
Major Elements ◽  
The Sun ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Life Changes ◽  
Inner Self ◽  
The World ◽  
Nature And Nurture ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Right ◽  
Superstitious Beliefs

A river flows serenely accepting all the miseries and happiness that it comes across its journey. A tree releases oxygen for human beings despite its inner plights. The sun is never tired of its duty and gives sunlight without any interruption. Why are all these elements of nature so tuned to? Education is knowledge. Knowledge comes from learning. Learning happens through experience. Familiarity is the master of life that shapes the individual. Every individual learns from nature. Nature teaches how to sustain, withdraw and advocate the prevailing situations. Some dwell into the deep realities of nature and nurture as ideal human beings. Life is a puzzle. How to solve it is a million dollar question that can never be answered so easily. The perception of life changes from individual to individual making them either physically powerful or feeble. Society is not made of only individuals. Along with individuals it has nature, emotions, spiritual powers and superstitious beliefs which bind them. Among them the most crucial and alarming is the emotions which are interrelated to others. Alone the emotional intelligence is going to guide the life of an individual. For everyone there is an inner self which makes them conscious of their deeds. The guiding force should always force the individual to choose the right path.  Writers are the powerful people who have rightly guided the society through their ingenious pen outs.  The present article is going to focus on how the major elements bound together are dominating the individual’s self through Rabindranath Tagore’s Home and the World (1916)

Wer täuscht wen?

2016 ◽  
Vol 2016 (1) ◽  
pp. 83-100
Author(s):  
Daniel Strassberg
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
The Self ◽  
Narrative Approach ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Narrative Context ◽  
Everyday Knowledge

The insight that human beings are prone to deceive themselves is part of our everyday knowledge of human nature. Even so, if deceiving someone means to deliberately misrepresent something to him, it is difficult to understand how it is possible to deceive yourself. This paper tries to address this difficulty by means of a narrative approach. Self-deception is conceived as a change of the narrative context by means of which the same fact appears in a different light. On these grounds, depending on whether the self-deceiver adopts an ironic attitude to his self-deception or not, it is also possible to distinguish between a morally inexcusable self-deception and a morally indifferent one.

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