A Comparison of Perceptions of Estonian and Latvian Hunters With Regard to the Control of African Swine Fever

Since the first detected African swine fever (ASF) cases in Lithuanian wild boar in 2014, the virus has occurred in many other member states of the European Union (EU), most recently in Belgium in 2018 and in Germany in 2020. Passive surveillance and various control measures are implemented as part of the strategy to stop disease spread in the wild boar population. Within this framework, hunters perform important activities, such as the removal of carcasses, fencing or hunting. Therefore, the successful implementation of these measures largely depends on their acceptability by hunters. Methods of participatory epidemiology can be used to determine the acceptance of control measures. The use of participatory methods allows the involvement of key stakeholders in the design, the implementation and the analysis of control and surveillance activities. In the present study, two studies that had been conducted using participatory epidemiology with hunters in Estonia and Latvia were compared on the topics recruitment, participants, facilitators, focus group discussion (FGDs) and their contents. The aim was to evaluate similarities and differences in the two studies and to identify a broader spectrum of possibilities to increase the willingness of hunters supporting the fight against ASF. Evaluating all conducted FGDs in both countries showed primarily similarities in the perceptions and opinions of the hunters in Estonia and Latvia. One notable difference was that passive surveillance in Latvia was perceived mostly as topic of duty and ethics rather than an issue driven by incentives. Participatory methods have proven to be an effective tool in the evaluation of the acceptance of established ASF control systems. The results of this study point out further chances for improving the cooperation with hunters in the future. Nevertheless, the importance of gathering and analyzing the opinions of hunters in all ASF affected countries individually is highlighted.

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African swine fever in the Lithuanian wild boar population in 2018: a snapshot

Virology Journal ◽

10.1186/s12985-020-01422-x ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Arnoldas Pautienius ◽

Katja Schulz ◽

Christoph Staubach ◽

Juozas Grigas ◽

Ruta Zagrabskaite ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

Active Surveillance ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Control Measures ◽

Disease Spread ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Wild Boar Population ◽

Prevalence Estimates ◽

Risk Of Disease ◽

Over Time

Abstract The first cases of African swine fever (ASF) were detected in the Lithuanian wild boar population in 2014. Since then, the disease spread slowly through the whole country, affecting both, wild boar and domestic pigs. In the other Baltic states, which both are also affected by ASF since 2014, the recent course of ASF prevalence suggests that the countries might be well under way of disease elimination. In contrast, in Lithuania the epidemic seems to be still in full progress. In the present study, we aimed to extend a previous prevalence study in Lithuania. Looking at ASF virus (ASFV) and seroprevalence estimates of wild boar in all months of 2018 and in all affected municipalities in Lithuania, the course of ASF was evaluated on a temporal and spatial scale. A non-spatial beta-binomial model was used to correct for under- or overestimation of the average prevalence estimates. Within 2018 no big differences between the prevalence estimates were seen over time. Despite of the lower sample size, highest ASFV prevalence estimates were found in dead wild boar, suggesting higher detection rates through passive surveillance than through active surveillance. Accordingly, with the maximum prevalence of 87.5% in May 2018, the ASFV prevalence estimates were very high in wild boar found dead. The number of samples originating from hunted animals (active surveillance) predominated clearly. However, the ASFV prevalence in those animals was lower with a maximum value of 2.1%, emphasizing the high value of passive surveillance. A slight increase of the seroprevalence in hunted wild boar could be seen over time. In the center of Lithuania, a cluster of municipalities with high ASFV and seroprevalence estimates was found. The results of the study indicate that ASFV is still circulating within the Lithuanian wild boar population, constituting a permanent risk of disease transmission into domestic pig holdings. However, additional, more recent data analyses are necessary to re-evaluate the course of ASF in Lithuania and thus, to be able to make a statement about the stage of the ASF epidemic in the country. This is of huge importance for Lithuania for evaluating control measures and their efficacy, but also for neighbouring countries to assess the risk of disease spread from Lithuania.

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R0 Estimation for the African Swine Fever Epidemics in Wild Boar of Czech Republic and Belgium

Veterinary Sciences ◽

10.3390/vetsci7010002 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (1) ◽

pp. 2 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Andrea Marcon ◽

Annick Linden ◽

Petr Satran ◽

Vincenzo Gervasi ◽

Alain Licoppe ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Czech Republic ◽

Wild Boar ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Reliable Data ◽

Control Measures ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Wild Populations ◽

Wild Pigs ◽

Eradication Strategy ◽

Growth Method

African swine fever (ASF) is a contagious haemorrhagic fever that affects both domesticated and wild pigs. Since ASF reached Europe wild boar populations have been a reservoir for the virus. Collecting reliable data on infected individuals in wild populations is challenging, and this makes it difficult to deploy an effective eradication strategy. However, for diseases with high lethality rate, infected carcasses can be used as a proxy for the number of infected individuals at a certain time. Then R0 parameter can be used to estimate the time distribution of the number of newly infected individuals for the outbreak. We estimated R0 for two ASF outbreaks in wild boar, in Czech Republic and Belgium, using the exponential growth method. This allowed us to estimate both R0 and the doubling time (Td) for those infections. The results are R0 = 1.95, Td = 4.39 for Czech Republic and R0 = 1.65, Td = 6.43 for Belgium. We suggest that, if estimated as early as possible, R0 and Td can provide an expected course for the infection against which to compare the actual data collected in the field. This would help to assess if passive surveillance is properly implemented and hence to verify the efficacy of the applied control measures.

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African swine fever (ASF) in wild boar

Medycyna Weterynaryjna ◽

10.21521/mw.6148 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 74 (12) ◽

pp. 6148-2018

Author(s):

ZYGMUNT PEJSAK ◽

MARIAN TRUSZCZYŃSKI ◽

KAZIMIERZ TARASIUK

Keyword(s):

Early Detection ◽

Wild Boar ◽

Large Scale ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

The European Union ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Surveillance Strategy ◽

Feral Pigs ◽

Scientific Opinion

This paper contains main points of the scientific opinion prepared by EFSA in 2018 on the request of the European Commission on the ASF epidemic in wild boar in Eastern – Central Europe, which started in 2014 and is existing and increasing until the present time. The first point is providing an estimate of the wild boar density in the European Union (EU). The next item is presenting the opinion on the latest epidemiological data to identify thresholds in wild boar density that do not allow sustaining the disease in different settings. The third question and answer concerns wild boar and feral pigs depopulation methods or population reduction methods. The fourth chapter is reviewing fencing methods demonstrating to temporarily protect crops from damage, caused by wild boar or feral swine. Currently there is no evidence , that large –scale fences have been effective for the containment of wild boar or feral pigs. The answer to the fifth question on surveillance strategy contains information on sample size, frequency of sampling and identification of possible risk groups for early detection of ASFV in naïve wild boar population. Passive surveillance is according to the opinion of EFSA the most effective and efficient method of surveillance for early detection of ASF in wild boar. For early detection through passive surveillance , the aim is to test as many “found dead” animals as possible. Based on current knowledge and experiences for an intervention to be successful, there is a need to detect an ASF incursion while it is spatially contained. The sixth topic of the EFSA scientific opinion requests to review successful methodologies used in the past, as for example the mentioned passive surveillance. It is recommended that this should be done in discussion among specialists from the UE countries. Good collaborations with hunters is recommended.

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The African Swine Fever Epidemic in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in Lithuania (2014–2018)

Veterinary Sciences ◽

10.3390/vetsci7010015 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 7 (1) ◽

pp. 15 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Petras Mačiulskis ◽

Marius Masiulis ◽

Gediminas Pridotkas ◽

Jūratė Buitkuvienė ◽

Vaclovas Jurgelevičius ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

Population Decline ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Control Measures ◽

Disease Spread ◽

Wild Boar Population ◽

Baltic States ◽

Long Distance ◽

First Case ◽

The Baltic

In January 2014 the first case of African swine fever (ASF) in wild boar of the Baltic States was reported from Lithuania. It has been the first occurrence of the disease in Eastern EU member states. Since then, the disease spread further affecting not only the Baltic States and Poland but also south-eastern Europe, the Czech Republic and Belgium. The spreading pattern of ASF with its long-distance spread of several hundreds of kilometers on the one hand and the endemic situation in wild boar on the other is far from being understood. By analyzing data of ASF cases in wild boar along with implemented control measures in Lithuania from 2014–2018 this study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the disease. In brief, despite huge efforts to eradicate ASF, the disease is now endemic in the Lithuanian wild boar population. About 86% of Lithuanian’s territory is affected and over 3225 ASF cases in wild boar have been notified since 2014. The ASF epidemic led to a considerable decline in wild boar hunting bags. Intensified hunting might have reduced the wild boar population but this effect cannot be differentiated from the population decline caused by the disease itself. However, for ASF detection sampling of wild boar found dead supported by financial incentives turned out to be one of the most effective tools.

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African swine fever virus (ASFV) in Poland: Prevalence in a wild boar population (2017–2018)

Veterinární Medicína ◽

10.17221/105/2019-vetmed ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 65 (No. 4) ◽

pp. 143-158 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

MP Frant ◽

M Lyjak ◽

L Bocian ◽

A Barszcz ◽

K Niemczuk ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

Active Surveillance ◽

African Swine Fever Virus ◽

Winter Season ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Disease Spread ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Wild Boar Population ◽

Wild Boars ◽

In The Wild

African swine fever (ASF) was first described in 1921 in Kenya. The latest epidemic of ASF started in 2007 in Georgia. The virus was introduced to Poland in 2014. Since the beginning of the epidemics, the National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy (NVRI) has been testing wild boar samples from restricted areas and other parts of Poland to conduct passive and active surveillance for ASFV in these groups of animals. The aim of this study was to summarise the last two years of the ASF epidemiological status in Poland and the attempt to find disease patterns in the wild boar population. The period between 2017 and 2018 brought a massive number of new ASF cases in Poland. The number of ASF-positive wild boars jumped from 91 in 2016 to 1 140 in 2017 (approximately a 12 × increase), and 2018 was even worse, with the disease affecting 4 083 animals (2 435 cases; one case could even be 10 animals or more if they are found in one place next to each other). The percentage of positive wild boars found dead (passive surveillance) in the restricted area increased in 2018 to 73.1% from 70.8% in 2017. The chance of obtaining positive results in this group was six times higher in December and 4.5 times higher in January than in August and September. The percentage of positive wild boars detected through active surveillance reached 1.5% in 2018. The data suggested that, not only in Poland, but also in other ASF-affected countries, during the epizootic stage of the disease spread the most important measure is an effective passive surveillance of dead wild boars especially, in the winter season rather than in the summer.

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What Do Lithuanian Hunters Think of African Swine Fever and Its Control—Perceptions

Animals ◽

10.3390/ani11020525 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (2) ◽

pp. 525

Author(s):

Evelina Stončiūtė ◽

Katja Schulz ◽

Alvydas Malakauskas ◽

Franz J. Conraths ◽

Marius Masiulis ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

Surveillance System ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Study Data ◽

Control Measures ◽

Attitudes And Beliefs ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Wild Boar Population ◽

In The Wild ◽

Governmental Institutions

After the introduction of African swine fever (ASF) into Lithuania in 2014, continuous spread of the disease resulted in infection of the wild boar populations in most parts of Lithuania. The virus has been moving closer to other Western European countries where pig density is high. An efficient surveillance system detecting ASF cases early in domestic and wild animals is necessary to manage this disease. To make surveillance appropriate and effective, it is critical to understand how key players perceive the implemented control measures. This study investigated the attitudes and beliefs of hunters in Lithuania regarding currently implemented or proposed measures for the control of ASF in the wild boar population. Study data were collected through questionnaires distributed via the internet and by hunting associations in Lithuania. In total, 621 fully completed questionnaires were received and analyzed. All measures interfering with extensive hunting, like ban of driven or individual hunting or ban of supplementary feeding were considered as unacceptable and as ineffective measures to control ASF in wild boar. However, selective hunting of female wild boar was generally considered as an unethical act and therefore rejected. Some measures that seem to have been successful in other countries, like involvement of additional forces, were rejected by Lithuanian hunters, thus implementation of these measures could be difficult. The study highlighted that there is a need for improving important relationships with other stakeholders, since many hunters expressed a lack of trust in governmental institutions and regarded cooperation with them as insufficient. Hunters emphasized that their motivation to support passive surveillance measures could be improved with financial compensation and reduction of workload. The present study provides insights into hunters’ perceptions, which may be used as a foundation for additional discussions with these important stakeholders and for adapting measures to improve their acceptance if appropriate.

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African Swine Fever in Wild Boar in Europe—A Review

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v13091717 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (9) ◽

pp. 1717

Author(s):

Carola Sauter-Louis ◽

Franz J. Conraths ◽

Carolina Probst ◽

Ulrike Blohm ◽

Katja Schulz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

Case Fatality ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Hemorrhagic Fever ◽

Spatial Behavior ◽

Control Measures ◽

Disease Spread ◽

Domestic Pigs ◽

In The Wild ◽

Socio Economic Impact

The introduction of genotype II African swine fever (ASF) virus, presumably from Africa into Georgia in 2007, and its continuous spread through Europe and Asia as a panzootic disease of suids, continues to have a huge socio-economic impact. ASF is characterized by hemorrhagic fever leading to a high case/fatality ratio in pigs. In Europe, wild boar are especially affected. This review summarizes the currently available knowledge on ASF in wild boar in Europe. The current ASF panzootic is characterized by self-sustaining cycles of infection in the wild boar population. Spill-over and spill-back events occur from wild boar to domestic pigs and vice versa. The social structure of wild boar populations and the spatial behavior of the animals, a variety of ASF virus (ASFV) transmission mechanisms and persistence in the environment complicate the modeling of the disease. Control measures focus on the detection and removal of wild boar carcasses, in which ASFV can remain infectious for months. Further measures include the reduction in wild boar density and the limitation of wild boar movements through fences. Using these measures, the Czech Republic and Belgium succeeded in eliminating ASF in their territories, while the disease spread in others. So far, no vaccine is available to protect wild boar or domestic pigs reliably against ASF.

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African Swine Fever in Two Large Commercial Pig Farms in LATVIA—Estimation of the High Risk Period and Virus Spread within the Farm

Veterinary Sciences ◽

10.3390/vetsci7030105 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 7 (3) ◽

pp. 105 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Kristīne Lamberga ◽

Edvīns Oļševskis ◽

Mārtiņš Seržants ◽

Aivars Bērziņš ◽

Arvo Viltrop ◽

...

Keyword(s):

High Risk ◽

Wild Boar ◽

Early Stage ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Control Measures ◽

Virus Spread ◽

Passive Surveillance ◽

Early Disease Detection ◽

Risk Period ◽

Commercial Farms

African swine fever (ASF) was first detected in Latvia in wild boar at the Eastern border in June 2014. Since then ASF has continued to spread in wild boar populations covering almost whole territory of the country. Sporadic outbreaks occurred at the same time in domestic pig holdings located in wild boar infected areas. Here we present the results of the epidemiological investigation in two large commercial farms. Several parameters were analyzed to determine the high risk period (HRP) and to investigate the ASF virus spread within the farm. Clinical data, mortality rates and laboratory results proved to be good indicators for estimating the HRP. The measures for early disease detection, particularly the enhanced passive surveillance that is targeting dead and sick pigs, were analyzed and discussed. Enhanced passive surveillance proved to be a key element to detect ASF at an early stage. The study also showed that ASF virus might spread slowly within a large farm depending mainly on direct contacts between pigs and the level of internal biosecurity. Findings suggest improvements in outbreak prevention, control measures and may contribute to a better understanding of ASF spreading patterns within large pig herds. Culling of all pigs in large commercial farms could be reconsidered under certain conditions.

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African Swine Fever Awareness in the Internet Media in Poland – exploratory review

E-methodology ◽

10.15503/emet2019.100.115 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 6 (6) ◽

pp. 100-115

Author(s):

ANDRZEJ JARYNOWSKI ◽

ANDRZEJ BUDA ◽

DANIEL PŁATEK ◽

VITALY BELIK

Keyword(s):

Wild Boar ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Secondary Data ◽

Control Measures ◽

The Internet ◽

Computational Techniques ◽

The European Union ◽

Domestic Pigs ◽

Internet Media ◽

Intensive Control

Aim. African Swine Fever (ASF) is a viral infection in domestic pigs and wild boars.It is estimated that ASF causes more than one billion EUR losses in Eastern Europe everyyear. In Poland, after initial outbreaks in 2014, almost 90% of pig farms stopped their production(in regions affected up to June 2017) due to restrictions (Jarynowski, Belk, 2019). InNovember 2019, the ASF virus has been confi rmed in a wild boar in the Wschowa poviat,just 30 km from the pig production hub in Wielkopolska (the so-called “swine district”).Recent rapid propagation of the ASF from East to West of Europe encouraged us to prepareanalysis of the Internet media awareness in Poland refl ecting the above mentioned socialdynamics.Methods. Using computational techniques we analyse agents and events in the Internetmedia. The intensive control measures against ASF in the European Union signifi cantlytransform biosecurity, trade, sanitary, environmental regulations and ethical standardscausing protests of various social groups of interest: 1) farmers (who are not ready to applye-methodology 2019 (6) 101biosecurity measures), 2) ecologists (who do not agree with governmental policy of wildboar depopulation) and 3) hunters with public administration (that have to take control onwild boar population).Results. In particular, we have reviewed possible ways of public opinion’s infl uenceusing Twitter, Facebook and mainstream websites’s data of selected groups of interest. Weidentify two main frames of events: 1) Culling of wild boar to minimize ASF spread and therisk of transmission to domestic pigs caused massive protest among ecological associationsin Poland, due to opposition of some experts in beginning of 2019; 2) jump of the virus toWestern Poland caused intensive discussion and lobbying of farmers postulates at the turnof 2019/2020.Conclusions. We claim that reliable analysis of the perception of the ASF is importantto understand possible confl icts and issues. We have provided analysis of usability of availableInternet resources as Secondary Data Digital Footprints.Key words: The Internet media, Social Media, Risk perception, African Swine Fever,ASF, Digital traces, Veterinary Public Health.

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Development of a pandemic of African Swine Fever

Medycyna Weterynaryjna ◽

10.21521/mw.6186 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 75 (02) ◽

pp. 6186-2019

Author(s):

ZYGMUNT PEJSAK ◽

MARIAN TRUSZCZYŃSKI ◽

KAZIMIERZ TARASIUKL

Keyword(s):

Infectious Diseases ◽

Wild Boar ◽

Large Scale ◽

Animal Health ◽

Swine Influenza ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

World Health ◽

The European Union ◽

Leading Position ◽

Veterinary Epidemiology

In the introduction of this paper the increasingly accepted nomenclature of basic expressions used in veterinary epidemiology is presented. This is in accordance with the 2018 Edition of Wiley-Blackwell Veterinary Epidemiology, by Michael Thrusfield. Pandemia and not Panzootia is used for large scale outbreaks of infectious diseases also in relation to animals characterizing significantly increased morbidity and mortatlity over a wide geographic area, including countries, continents or even the whole globe and causing significant economic, social and even political disruption. It is underlined that the pandemics of infectious diseases of animals will continue to increase because of the growing transboundary trade and transportation of animals and animal products and increasing international contacts of humans. In the control of pandemics of humans, particularly, for example of influenza of the years 1918-1919, and also in 1968, but also pandemics of other ethiology occurring in humans the World Health Organisation (WHO) took the leading position. In case of avian and swine influenza as well as in pandemics occurring in animals, the leading position in prevention, control and eradication belongs to World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The main part of this paper is devoted to the characterization of the pandemic of African Swine Fever (ASF) which started in 2007 in Georgia, transmitted from Africa. Countries, where ASF virus (ASFV) was confirmed by laboratory tests are mentioned in the text of this paper. They are located in Eurasia. Among them are countries, being members of the European Union (EU). The routs of spreading of the ASFV in wild boar and swine are given, the methods of ASF control in EU were presented. The main vector of the ASF spread in EU, is the wild boar and the humans. Future distribution of the pandemia spread of ASFV is difficult to predict. Veterinary services of many countries, practitioners and scientists are working intensively to understand epidemiology of ASF and to stop the spread of ASFV.

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