Trained Immunity-Based Vaccines: A Ready-to-Act Strategy to Tackle Viral Outbreaks

Viral outbreaks have become significant threats to global human public health. New emerging viruses, pathogen mutations, and even the progressive loss of efficacy in some existing vaccines are behind this problem, which is amplified by the rapid virus spread given the ease of current mobility. Taking into account that these outbreaks arise in the absence of conventional effective vaccines, alternative approaches based on trained (innate) immunity are being considered. This immunity is dependent on a functional reprogramming of innate immune cells, leading to an enhanced nonspecific response towards different pathogens, including viruses. Trained immunity-based vaccines (TIbVs), defined as vaccine formulations containing trained immunity inducers, could be used during viral outbreaks to confer non-specific protection but also to enhance adaptive specific immune responses. In this chapter, we aim to illustrate how TIbVs could tackle the above-mentioned situations derived from viral outbreaks, reviewing the potential of available TIbVs in such urgent situations with a special mention to COVID-19.

A Pre-Vaccination Baseline of SARS-CoV-2 Genetic Surveillance and Diversity in the United States

COVID-19 vaccines were first administered on 15 December 2020, marking an important transition point for the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the United States (U.S.). Prior to this point in time, the virus spread to an almost completely immunologically naïve population, whereas subsequently, vaccine-induced immune pressure and prior infections might be expected to influence viral evolution. Accordingly, we conducted a study to characterize the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the U.S. pre-vaccination, investigate the depth and uniformity of genetic surveillance during this period, and measure and otherwise characterize changing viral genetic diversity, including by comparison with more recently emergent variants of concern (VOCs). In 2020, SARS-CoV-2 spread across the U.S. in three phases distinguishable by peaks in the numbers of infections and shifting geographical distributions. Virus was genetically sampled during this period at an overall rate of ~1.2%, though there was a substantial mismatch between case rates and genetic sampling nationwide. Viral genetic diversity tripled over this period but remained low in comparison to other widespread RNA virus pathogens, and although 54 amino acid changes were detected at frequencies exceeding 5%, linkage among them was not observed. Based on our collective observations, our analysis supports a targeted strategy for worldwide genetic surveillance as perhaps the most sensitive and efficient means of detecting new VOCs.

COVID-19 outbreaks in nursing homes: A strong link with the coronavirus spread in the surrounding population, France, March to July 2020

Background Worldwide, COVID-19 outbreaks in nursing homes have often been sudden and massive. The study investigated the role SARS-CoV-2 virus spread in nearby population plays in introducing the disease in nursing homes. Material and methods This was carried out through modelling the occurrences of first cases in each of 943 nursing homes of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes French Region over the first epidemic wave (March-July, 2020). The cumulative probabilities of COVID-19 outbreak in the nursing homes and those of hospitalization for the disease in the population were modelled in each of the twelve Départements of the Region over period March-July 2020. This allowed estimating the duration of the active outbreak period, the dates and heights of the peaks of outbreak probabilities in nursing homes, and the dates and heights of the peaks of hospitalization probabilities in the population. Spearman coefficient estimated the correlation between the two peak series. Results The cumulative proportion of nursing homes with COVID-19 outbreaks was 52% (490/943; range: 22–70% acc. Département). The active outbreak period in the nursing homes lasted 11 to 21 days (acc. Département) and ended before lockdown end. Spearman correlation between outbreak probability peaks in nursing homes and hospitalization probability peaks in the population (surrogate of the incidence peaks) was estimated at 0.71 (95% CI: [0.66; 0.78]). Conclusion The modelling highlighted a strong correlation between the outbreak in nursing homes and the external pressure of the disease. It indicated that avoiding disease outbreaks in nursing homes requires a tight control of virus spread in the surrounding populations.

Relevance of Artificial Intelligence in Modern Healthcare

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are playing a major role in addressing and understanding better the COVID-19 crisis in recent days. These technologies are simulating human intelligence into the machines and consume large amounts of data for identifying and understanding the patterns and insights quickly than a human and preparing us with new kinds of technologies for preventing and fighting with COVID-19 and other pandemics. It helps a lot to notice the people who got infected by the virus and to forecast the infection rate in the upcoming days with the earlier data. Healthcare and medical sectors are in requirement of advanced technologies for taking accurate decision to manage this virus spread. AI-enabled technologies are working in a talented way to do things intelligently like human intelligence. Thus, the AI-enabled technologies are employed for attaining accurate health results by examining, forecasting, and checking present infected and possibly future cases.

A Modified SIR Model for the COVID-19 Epidemic in China

The analysis of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is of great importance to deeply understand the dynamics of this coronavirus spread. Based on the complexity of it, a modified susceptible-infected-removed (SIR) model is applied to analyse the time dependence of active and hospitalized cases in China. The time evolution of the virus spread in different provinces was adequately modelled. Changeable parameters among them have been obtained and turned to be not naively independent with each other. The non-extensive parameter was found to be strongly connected with the freedom of systems. Taken into the prevention and treatment of disease, more measures by the government lead to higher values of it.

Employee Ownership or How to Anticipate Financial Crises Within a Company

The COVID-19 pandemic has turned the world of work upside down. It is having a dramatic effect on the employment, livelihoods, and well-being of workers and their families, as well as on businesses around the world, especially small and medium-sized enterprises. It started in China at the end of 2019, with that country's economy mainly the first to be affected. The global economy was then impacted as the virus spread. It is a bit early to estimate precisely the extent of the economic crisis on a company, but it is already certain that it is more brutal than before. Companies that have opened their capital to their employees are more likely to keep their employees than other companies that offer a significantly higher level of security to their employees (maintenance of working hours and compensation). What practical economic logic will be found in the company once employee ownership is applied? Would it be an effective way to overcome the various situations of discontent and anxiety among employees, where these feelings are already very strong?

Pathogenesis of Aquatic Bird Bornavirus in Muscovy Ducks

Aquatic bird bornavirus (ABBV), a type of avian bornavirus, has been associated with inflammation of the central and peripheral nervous systems and neurological disease in wild waterfowl in North America and Europe. The potential of ABBV to infect and cause lesions in commercial waterfowl species is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the ability of ABBV to infect and cause disease in day-old Muscovy ducks (n = 174), selected as a representative domestic waterfowl. Ducklings became infected with ABBV through both intracranial and intramuscular infection routes: upon intramuscular infection, the virus spread centripetally to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), while intracranial infection led to virus spread to the spinal cord, kidneys, proventriculus, and gonads (centrifugal spread). Infected birds developed both encephalitis and myelitis by 4 weeks post infection (wpi), which progressively subsided by 8 and 12 wpi. Despite development of microscopic lesions, clinical signs were not observed. Only five birds had choanal and/or cloacal swabs positive for ABBV, suggesting a moderate potential of Muscovy ducks to shed the virus. This is the first study to document the pathogenesis of ABBV in poultry species, and confirms the ability of ABBV to infect commercial waterfowl.

The Relative Global Consequences of Cumulative Distribution of Covid-19, Using the USA as Comparism Factor and Cumulative Covid -19 Data of 31st October 2021

COVID -19 have affected over 200 million and killed about 5 million people globally. Many steps have been taken to understand its dynamics, etiology and infectivity. Several approach have also been taken to control and manage the virus, while vaccines have been developed to prevent the rate of infectivity. Because of complete lack of knowledge of the virus, shortage in vaccine supply etc, understanding how the virus spread per country may determine relativity in vaccine emergency. The aim of this study is to determine the relative global consequences of cumulative distribution of Covid-19, using the USA as comparism factor and cumulative covid -19 data of 31st October 2021. Data from one hundred and fifty four countries were selected based on their continents, countries and cases of infection. Data were obtained from United Nations Geoscheme and WHO. They were analyzed and compared to that of the United State of America (USA) value. Data analyzed showed that most Africa countries are least to be affected while Americans and Europeans appear to be most affected. Result from the study shows that Africa may have develop mechanisms to cope and survive the virus pandemic compared to other region of the world. Hence, vaccine priority may be considered base on infectivity and severity of infection.