Mānuka Clones Differ in Their Volatile Profiles: Potential Implications for Plant Defence, Pollinator Attraction and Bee Products

The New Zealand native plant mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium) is representative of the country’s North and South Islands flora. This species is essential to the growing community of honey producers due to its honey’s antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, attributed to the presence of methylglyoxal (MGO), derived from dihydroxyacetone (DHA) in the nectar. Several clones and cultivars have been selected to optimize DHA production. Still, nothing is known about the volatile emissions of these artificially selected plants. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can influence their interactions with the environment, such as pollinator foraging decisions, which may subsequently affect the plants’ products. This study explored the aboveground volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by eight different mānuka genotypes (six clones and two wild cultivars) under field conditions during the spring season. Volatiles were collected using the “push–pull” headspace sampling technique and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Our results show that mānuka plants emit large amounts of terpenoids, with sesquiterpenes and monoterpenoids being the most abundant groups of compounds. The results also show variation in the total green leaf volatiles, total sesquiterpenes, and specific compounds between genotypes and suggest that artificially selected plants have a significant variation in their chemical profiles. The potential impacts of these results on the plant’s defence, pollinator attraction and bee products are discussed.

Volatile-mediated signaling induces resistance of barley against infection with the biotrophic fungus Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei

Plants have evolved a vast variety of secondary metabolites to counteract biotic stress. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-based molecules induced by herbivore attack or pathogen infection. A mixture of plant VOCs is released for direct or indirect plant defense, plant-plant or plant-insect communication. Recent studies suggest that VOCs can also induce biotic stress resistance in distant organs and neighboring plants. Among other VOCs, green leaf volatiles (GLVs) are quickly released by plant tissue after the onset of herbivory or wounding. We analysed VOCs emitted by 13-day old barley plants (Hordeum vulgare L.) after mechanical wounding using passive absorbers and TD-GC/MS detection. We investigated the influence of pure (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate (Z3HAC) as well as complex VOCs from wounded barley plants on the barley - powdery mildew interaction by pre-exposure in a static and a dynamic headspace connected to a powdery mildew susceptibility assay. GLVs dominated the volatile profile of wounded barley plants with Z3HAC as the most prominent compound. Pre-exposure with Z3HAC resulted in induced resistance of barley against fungal infection. Barley complex volatiles emitted after mechanical wounding, similarly, enhanced resistance in receiver plants. We found volatile-induced modification of the interaction towards an enhanced resistance against fungal infection. In addition, Z3HAC triggered a modulation of the alcohol dehydrogenase isoenzyme activity in receiver plants, a physiological response that possibly contributes to induced resistance. Plant-originated volatile metabolites could be a useful supplementation for future agronomic or horticultural practices.

Green Leaf Volatiles in the Atmosphere—Properties, Transformation, and Significance

This review thoroughly covers the research on green leaf volatiles (GLV) in the context of atmospheric chemistry. It briefly takes on the GLV sources, in-plant synthesis, and emission inventory data. The discussion of properties includes GLV solubility in aqueous systems, Henry’s constants, partition coefficients, and UV spectra. The mechanisms of gas-phase reactions of GLV with OH, NO3, and Cl radicals, and O3 are explained and accompanied by a catalog of products identified experimentally. The rate constants of gas-phase reactions are collected in tables with brief descriptions of corresponding experiments. A similar presentation covers the aqueous-phase reactions of GLV. The review of multiphase and heterogeneous transformations of GLV covers the smog-chamber experiments, products identified therein, along with their yields and the yields of secondary organic aerosols (SOA) formed, if any. The components of ambient SOA linked to GLV are briefly presented. This review recognized GLV as atmospheric trace compounds that reside primarily in the gas phase but did not exclude their transformation in atmospheric waters. GLV have a proven potential to be a source of SOA with a global burden of 0.6 to 1 Tg yr−1 (estimated jointly for (Z)-hexen-1-ol, (Z)-3-hexenal, and 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol), 0.03 Tg yr−1 from switch grass cultivation for biofuels, and 0.05 Tg yr−1 from grass mowing.

A comparative study of plant volatiles induced by insect and gastropod herbivory

Insect and gastropod herbivores are major plant consumers and their importance in the evolution of plant defensive traits is broadly recognized. However, their respective effects on plant responses have rarely been compared. Here we focused on plant volatile emissions (VOCs) following herbivory and compared the effects of herbivory by caterpillars of the generalist insect Spodoptera littoralis and by generalist slugs of the genus Arion on the VOCs emissions of 14 cultivated plant species. Results revealed that plants consistently produced higher amounts of volatiles and responded more specifically to caterpillar than to slug herbivory. Specifically, plants released on average 6.0 times more VOCs (total), 8.9 times more green leaf volatiles, 4.2 times more terpenoids, 6.0 times more aromatic hydrocarbons, and 5.7 times more other VOCs in response to 1 cm2 of insect damage than to 1 cm2 of slug damage. Interestingly, four of the plant species tested produced a distinct blend of volatiles following insect damage but not slug damage. These findings may result from different chemical elicitors or from physical differences in herbivory by the two herbivores. This study is an important step toward a more inclusive view of plant responses to different types of herbivores.

Processing of Airborne Green Leaf Volatiles for Their Glycosylation in the Exposed Plants

Green leaf volatiles (GLVs), the common constituents of herbivore-infested plant volatiles (HIPVs), play an important role in plant defense and function as chemical cues to communicate with other individuals in nature. Reportedly, in addition to endogenous GLVs, the absorbance of airborne GLVs emitted by infested neighboring plants also play a major role in plant defense. For example, the exclusive accumulation of (Z)-3-hexenyl vicianoside in the HIPV-exposed tomato plants occurs by the glycosylation of airborne (Z)-3-hexenol (Z3HOL); however, it is unclear how plants process the other absorbed GLVs. This study demonstrates that tomato plants dominantly accumulated GLV–glycosides after exposure to green leaf alcohols [Z3HOL, (E)-2-hexenol, and n-hexanol] using non-targeted LC–MS analysis. Three types of green leaf alcohols were independently glycosylated without isomerization or saturation/desaturation. Airborne green leaf aldehydes and esters were also glycosylated, probably through converting aldehydes and esters into alcohols. Further, we validated these findings in Arabidopsis mutants- (Z)-3-hexenal (Z3HAL) reductase (chr) mutant that inhibits the conversion of Z3HAL to Z3HOL and the acetyl-CoA:(Z)-3-hexen-1-ol acetyltransferase (chat) mutant that impairs the conversion of Z3HOL to (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate. Exposure of the chr and chat mutants to Z3HAL accumulated lower and higher amounts of glycosides than their corresponding wild types (Col-0 and Ler), respectively. These findings suggest that plants process the exogenous GLVs by the reductase(s) and the esterase(s), and a part of the processed GLVs contribute to glycoside accumulation. Overall, the study provides insights into the understanding of the communication of the plants within their ecosystem, which could help develop strategies to protect the crops and maintain a balanced ecosystem.

Priming With The Green Leaf Volatile (Z)-3-Hexeny-1-yl Acetate Enhances Drought Resistance in Wheat Seedlings

It was reported that green leaf volatiles play vital roles in multiple plant biotic and abiotic stresses, however, their functions in drought resistance have not been determined. The present study was to investigate the possible role of (Z)-3-hexeny-1-yl acetate (Z-3-HAC), a kind of green leaf volatile, in alleviating wheat drought stress and the underlying physiological mechanisms governing this effect. Seedlings of a drought-resistant variety were primed with 100 μM Z-3-HAC at the four-leaf stage before drought treatment. Morphological analysis showed that the primed seedlings grew better and possessed higher biomass accumulation in both shoot and root under drought stress. Additionally, exogenous Z-3-HAC significantly increased the total root length, total root surface area, and total root volume of the seedlings under drought stress. Physiological measurements showed that the primed seedlings possessed higher relative water content (RWC), net photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance (Gs), transpiration rate (Tr), maximal photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) (Fv/Fm), photochemical activity of PSII (Fv′/Fm′), total chlorophyll content, activities of the antioxidant enzymes, and osmolyte accumulation under drought conditions. Furthermore, relative electrolyte conductivity (REC), intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci), reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were significantly lower than in non-primed seedlings. Lastly, principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that Z-3-HAC protects wheat seedlings against damage from drought stress mainly through antioxidant and osmoregulation systems.

The Effect of Antagonist Abiotic Stress on Bioactive Compounds from Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Drought and flooding are some of the most common stressful conditions for plants. Due to the recent climate changes, they can occur one after another. This study is focused on the effect of antagonistic abiotic stress such as drought and flooding on the different metabolites from Ocimum basilicum leaves. Six-week-old plants of Ocimum basilicum were exposed to drought or flooding stress for 15 days, followed by antagonist stress for 14 days. The assimilation rates decrease drastically for plants under consecutive stresses from 18.9 to 0.25 µmol m−2 s−1 starting at day 3 of treatment. The stomatal conductance to water vapor gs was also reduced from 86 to 29 mmol m−2 s−1. The emission of green leaf volatiles compounds increases from 0.14 to 2.48 nmol m−2 s−1, and the emission of monoterpenes increased from 2.00 to 7.37 nmol m−2 s−1. The photosynthetic pigment concentration (chlorophyll a and b, and β-carotene), the flavonoid content, and total phenolic content decrease for all stressed plants. The results obtained in this study could indicate that the water status (drought and/or flooding) directly impacts basil plants’ physiological parameters and secondary metabolites.

Diversity and Interrelations Among the Constitutive VOC Emission Blends of Four Broad-Leaved Tree Species at Seedling Stage

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plants consist of a broad range of gasses which serve purposes such as protecting against herbivores, communicating with insects and neighboring plants, or increasing the tolerance to environmental stresses. Evidence is accumulating that the composition of VOC blends plays an important role in fulfilling these purposes. Constitutional emissions give insight into species-specific stress tolerance potentials and are an important first step in linking metabolism and function of co-occurring VOCs. Here, we investigate the blend composition and interrelations among co-emitted VOCs in unstressed seedlings of four broad-leaved tree species, Quercus robur, Fagus sylvatica, Betula pendula, and Carpinus betulus. VOCs of Q. robur and F. sylvatica mainly emitted isoprene and monoterpenes, respectively. B. pendula had relatively high sesquiterpene emission; however, it made up only 1.7% of its total emissions while the VOC spectrum was dominated by methanol (∼72%). C. betulus was emitting methanol and monoterpenes in similar amounts compared to other species, casting doubt on its frequent classification as a close-to-zero VOC emitter. Beside these major VOCs, a total of 22 VOCs could be identified, with emission rates and blend compositions varying drastically between species. A principal component analysis among species revealed co-release of multiple compounds. In particular, new links between pathways and catabolites were indicated, e.g., correlated emission rates of methanol, sesquiterpenes (mevalonate pathway), and green leaf volatiles (hexanal, hexenyl acetate, and hexenal; lipoxygenase pathway). Furthermore, acetone emissions correlated with eugenol from the Shikimate pathway, a relationship that has not been described before. Our results thus indicate that certain VOC emissions are highly interrelated, pointing toward the importance to improve our understanding of VOC blends rather than targeting dominant VOCs only.