Environmental and Biological Monitoring of Organochlorine Pesticides in the City of Salamanca, Mexico

The former Tekchem Industrial Unit located in the city of Salamanca, Mexico, constitutes an environmental liability in which the presence of high levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) has been reported. In the present study, levels of OCPs were quantified using gas chromatography – mass spectrometry in 52 soil samples and in 88 blood samples from school-age children in the city of Salamanca. A median concentration of 70.6 ng/g (6.93 - 3276) was obtained for total OCPs in soil, while for the total sum of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) the value was 49.6 ng/g (6.93 - 3276). In children, the median level of the total sum of OCPs was 390 ng/g lipid (7.34 - 14895), and for the total sum of DDT was 175 ng/g lipid (<LOD - 14802). The OCPs that resulted in highest concentrations in soil were DDT and its metabolites, as well as aldrin and heptachlor epoxide; while in blood the highest levels corresponded to 4,4’-DDT and its metabolites, followed by heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide. The spatial distribution of the concentrations of OCPs in soil shows that the facilities of Teckchem may be a significant potential source for the dispersion of these compounds towards the metropolitan area of Salamanca. The results obtained in the present study demonstrate the presence of OCPs in soil and in child population, providing important bases to study the problem from a broader perspective, while reiterating the importance of continuing efforts to generate resolute and precautionary measures with respect to the environmental liability of Tekchem.

Assessment of systemic and carcinogenic health risks of persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in four fruit vegetables in south-western Nigeria

PurposeThe study assessed the levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and their potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks in four regularly consumed fruit vegetables.Design/methodology/approachThe OCPs’ residues were quantified using a gas chromatograph coupled with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD) and the dietary exposure of children, and adult consumers to the detected OCPs was evaluated using carcinogenic and systemic health risk estimations.FindingsAldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, a-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, endosulfan sulphate, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide and dieldrin were detected in the four fruit vegetables. The predominant OCP residue in carrot, cucumber, tomatoes and watermelon was endosulfan sulphate with mean concentrations of 2.532 mg kg−1, 1.729 mg kg−1, 2.363 mg kg−1 and 1.154 mg kg−1, respectively. The residues levels in some of the fruit vegetables were higher than their respective maximum residue levels (MRLs) of 0.01–0.05 mg kg−1 set by the European Commission with concentrations above MRLs ranging between 25.5% and 100%. The systemic health risk estimations showed that the hazard index (HI) values for carrot (3.20), cucumber (9.25), tomatoes (50.21) and watermelon (16.76) were >1 for children consumers and the respective HI values of 2.87, 15.57 and 5.20 for adult consumers of cucumber, tomatoes and watermelon were >1 which implies potential systemic health risks. Four carcinogens (aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide) had cancer risk index values greater than the acceptable risk of 1 in 1 million for both adult and children consumers.Originality/valueThe paper shows that despite the ban on the use of OCPs in Nigeria, they are still being used for agricultural production especially on some locally produced and regularly consumed fruit vegetables as reported in the present study. The non-existence of surveillance programmes on pesticide usage and the lack of proper monitoring of pesticide residues in food products including fruit and vegetables must have contributed to the levels of the detected OCP in the samples analysed. The current daily intake of OCP via contaminated vegetables may pose potential health risks to both the children and adult consumers of the fruit vegetables.

Organochlorine pesticide residues in plants and their possible ecotoxicological and agri food impacts

Scientific investigations on levels of Organochlorine Pesticide (OCP) residues in plants largely consider the edible parts (crops, vegetables, and fruit plants). Though the non-edible parts of plants are not eaten by human beings directly, these parts are consumed by livestock and other animals, thereby facilitating the flow of chemical residues through the food chain. The objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the concentration of OCP residues in non-edible plant parts to provide insights on their potential ecotoxicological impacts. Eighteen OCP residues were extracted in nine different plant species (banana Musa acuminate, brinjal Solanum melongena, Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, lotus Nelumbo nucifera, paddy Oryza sativa, sugarcane Saccharum officinarum, tapioca Manihot esculenta, tomato Lycopersicon esculentum) following QuEChERS method. The concentrations of OCP residues in plant extracts were determined using Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). The OCP residues, namely: γ-HCH (lindane), heptachlor epoxide isomer, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde and endrin ketone were found predominantly in seven plant species. Residues of γ-HCH (lindane) were reported in different parts of plant species such as stem (581.14 ng/g in paddy and 585.82 ng/g in tapioca) and leaf (583.3 ng/g in tomato). Seven samples contained residues of heptachlor epoxide isomer (512.53 to 1173.8 ng/g). Dieldrin was found in paddy stem (489.97 ng/g), tapioca stem (490.21 ng/g) and tapioca leaf (490.32 ng/g). The detected OCPs in the present study were 10–50 times higher than the Maximum Residue Limits (MRL, 0.01–0.1 mg/Kg) as prescribed in the Codex Alimentarius of the FAO/WHO. Their elevated concentrations in the plant parts therefore pose risk of contamination to the consumers in the food chain, including human beings those are dependent on the animals as source of protein. The findings of this study are the first report on residue levels of OCPs in non-edible plant parts in the agricultural landscape of Puducherry region, India. Since, this study assumes significance for the strategic location of Oussudu Lake, an interstate lake spread over Puducherry and Tamil Nadu states, regular monitoring of OCP residues in different environmental segments in strategic locations in both the states is suggested, which will help the authorities in devising a comprehensive environmental management plan aiming at the ecosystem at large.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of some Organochlorine Pesticides in Cowpea from South-South of Nigeria

Background: Organochlorine pesticides used illegally in the storage of cowpeas by some farmers to prevent attack by weevils were known to affect the health of human adversely. Objectives: This study determined the mean concentration of aldrin, o,p΄-DDT, endosulfan, heptachlor epoxide and γ-HCH collected from some markets in South-South of Nigeria, compared these concentrations with set standards and ascertained the incidence of occurrence in cowpeas. Methods: Forty-eight samples of cowpeas were randomly collected from local markets, identified, authenticated, extracted with dichloromethane using Soxhlet apparatus, cleaned-up with silica gel and analysed in a GC-MS using Restek column. Results: The mean concentration of aldrin (445.08±6.43) µg/kg, heptachlor epoxide (188.84±3.42) µg/kg, o,p΄-DDT (182.24±5.13) µg/kg, endosulfan (142.94±2.05) µg/kg and γ-HCH (243.90±4.01) µg/kg in some markets were high and above the maximum residual limit. Conclusion: Organochlorine pesticides are used in most of the markets in south-south Nigeria for the preservation of cowpeas and in some cases, two or more were detected in a given sample, which could be due to the addition of a combination of pesticides. The need for regular monitoring by regulatory agencies and for sensitisation of both the farmers and merchants on the danger of using these pesticides in cowpeas preservation is therefore germane.

Analysis of Aldrin, Endosulfan and Heptachlor epoxide in Cowpea from South-West Nigeria

Background: Pesticides are applied on cowpeas to reduce the losses incurred to the attack by Callosobruchus maculatus which adversely affect its production and storage. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the mean concentration of heptachlor epoxide, aldrin and endosulfan in randomly collected cowpeas obtained from local markets in South-West states of Nigeria and compare the mean concentration with the maximum residual limit (MRL) set by the regulatory body. Method: Seventy-six samples of cowpeas were collected from from local markets within the study area, pulverised, extracted with dichloromethane, cleaned-up and analysed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) for aldrin, endosulfan and heptachlor epoxide. Results: The experiment showed that aldrin, endosulfan and heptachlor epoxide are widely used in South-West for preservation of cowpea. Mean concentration of aldrin (406.8±0.12 μg/kg) in Bodija market, Oyo state, was observed to be the highest. The market in Ile Epo market, Lagos state, was observed to have the highest mean concentration for endosulfan (315±0.164 μg/kg) while Okitipupa market, Ogun state, recorded a mean concentration for heptachlor epoxide (156±6.23 μg/kg), which is the highest. Conclusion: This shows that aldrin, endosulfan and heptachlor epoxide are used in the storage of cowpeas long after they were labelled probable carcinogens and their mean concentrations were above the MRL set by USEPA. Thus there is need for regular monitoring to be conducted on cowpeas for organochlorines.

Impact of Organic Micropollutants Causing Mass Mortality of the Clams (Mactra aequisulcata) Due to Charactersitic Distribution at Karachi Coast, Pakistan

Mass mortality of bivalve clams along with some other marine fauna was observed during the month of May 2016, mainly consisting of the clams (Mactra aequisulcata) of family Veneridae surfaced over the Clifton coast. The occurrence of mass mortality of the venerid clams Mactra aequisulcata and other marine life has been studied due to the toxicity of chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDTs, HCHs, hexa chloro benzene (HCB), chlordane, dieldrin (4-chlorophenyl), methanol (TCPMOH) and heptachlor epoxide and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Significant compositional characteristics of PCBs and DDTs were found in all dead clams and other fauna including fish (Johnius carutta), crabs (Portunus pelagicus), gastropods (Babylonia spirata), bivalves (Anadara antiquata), (Mactra aequisulcata) and the pen shell (Atrina pectinata) from Karachi coast, Pakistan. Mean concentrations (ranges) of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in crab (Portunus pelagicus) and fish samples were 1.1 (<0.01-1.5), 0.22 (<0.01-1.1) and 0.14 (<0.01-1.3) /µg/g. Those in, bivalves (Anadara antiquata) and pen shell (Atrina pectinata), clams (Mactra aequisulcata) were 0.09 (<0.02-1.2), 0.22 (<0.02-1.3) /µg and 0.13 (<0.01-0.27), respectively. The heptachlor epoxide was found in highest concentration in clam samples (25.00 ± 30.92) µg/g, (wet weight) however, in bivalves, (2.30 µg/g, (wet weight), which were higher than those in other gastropods. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) concentrations were also measured in the same samples of gastropods (Babylonia spirata), fish (Johnius carutta), crab (Portunus pelagicus), clams (Mactra aequisulcata), bivalves (Anadara antiquata) and the pen shell (Atrina pectinata) to determine the possible cause of mass mortality. The DDT to metabolites (DDD & DDE) concentration ratios exceeded upto 1.0 in the sessile fauna that is clams (Mactra aequisulcata) and the pen shell (Atrina pectinata) from Karachi coast. These organisms also exhibited dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) inputs, whereas dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDD) was found to be in degraded component and PCBs were generally in low concentrations. The concentrations of DDTs were higher than the ERL guidelines in the coastal areas of Karachi, suggesting that there is potential of ecological risk present in the prevailing environment.

Determination of Organochlorines in Soil of a Suburban Area of São Paulo Brazil

Technological advances have promoted improvements in several science fields, especially related to environmental and analytical areas with the improvement of detection and development of environmentally friendly extraction techniques. This study applied Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe method (QuEChERS) for soil extraction and assessed its performance through a validation study using samples from the soil of a contaminated area in Caieiras, SP, Brazil. Nine organochlorine pesticides, including the isomers alpha, beta, gamma and delta- hexachlorocyclohexane; cis- and trans-heptachlor epoxide; cis- and trans-chlordane and heptachlor were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to electron capture detector. The method was validated according to ISO 5725-4 (2020), EURACHEM (2014) and DOQ-CGCRE-008 (2016). The limits of detection and quantification of the method for the nine organochlorines were α-HCH (1.2 and 12.6 µg kg−1), β-HCH (1.7 and 12.0 µg kg−1), γ-HCH (1.5 and 11.6 µg kg−1), δ-HCH (0.8 and 11.6 µg kg−1), heptachlor (1.0 and 10.8 µg kg−1), cis-heptachlor epoxide (0.9 and 11.5 µg kg−1), trans-heptachlor epoxide (0.9 and 11.5 µg kg−1), cis-chlordane (0.4 and 7.9 µg kg−1) and trans-chlordane (0.5 and 10.9 µg kg−1), respectively, and all of them were within the maximum limits recommended by the EPA for the compounds α-HCH (86.0 and 360.0 µg kg−1), β-HCH (300.0 and 1.3 × 103 µg kg−1), γ-HCH (570.0 and 2.5 × 103 µg kg−1), δ-HCH (not defined), heptachlor (130.0 and 630.0 µg kg−1), cis-/trans-heptachlor epoxide (7.0 and 330.0 µg kg−1), cis-/trans-chlordane (1.77 × 103 and 7.7 × 103 µg kg−1) in residential and industrial soil, respectively. Recovery results were between 65% and 105% for almost all compounds, which is an optimum result for multi-residue analytical methods, considering the complexity of the matrix used in the study. Caieiras presented contamination levels of α-HCH in the range of 2.0 to 66.0 µg g−1, which was higher than the limits established by EPA, corresponding to 0.077 µg g−1 for residential soil and 0.27 µg g−1 for industrial soil. According to the validation study, the analytical method proposed was reliable for organochlorine quantification, and the QuEChERS was considered efficient for organochlorine extraction from soil.

DETERMINATION OF ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN SOME VEGETABLES AND FRUIT BY QuEChERS TECHNIQUES AND GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY /MASS SPECTROMETRY

The concentrations of organochlorine pesticide residues were analysed in some vegetables and fruit (spinach, lettuce, cabbage, tomatoes, carrots and onions) grown at Dagachi farming areas along River Galma of Zaria in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Sample collection and preparation were carried out using standard procedures. The concentrations of all the pesticides in the fruits and vegetables samples were analysed using quick easy cheap effective rugged and safe (QuEChERS) multi- residue extraction and clean up techniques, followed by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC – MS). The most commonly detected organochlorine pesticide residues in the entire samples analysed are lindane, delta – BHC, heptachlor epoxide (B), endosulfan I, dieldrin, and endosulfan II. Furthermore, the results of the study shows that the mean concentration of these organochlorines pesticide detected were higher in onion and spinach with heptachlor epoxide (B) having concentrations 2.303 mg/kg and 2.011 mg/kg respectively. Likewise, endosulfan II (1.433 mg/kg) in lettuce was observed. Heptachlor epoxide (B) detected were also very high in other samples such as carrot, cabbage, and tomatoes and with values 0.600 mg/kg, 0.716 mg/kg, and 0.524 mg/kg respectively. Indeed, these concentrations of all the organochlorine pesticides detected in the fruit and vegetables samples analysed were observed to be at alarming levels, much higher than the maximum residue limits (MRLs) by the Codex 2009 (WHO and FAO) except for lindane with values 0.007 mg/kg and 0.01 mg/kg in carrot and onions respectively

Occurrence of Organochlorine Pesticide (OCP) Residues in Chicken Skin, Liver and Muscle in Egypt

This study was conducted for determination of organochlorine (OCPs) pesticide residues in muscle, skin and liver of chickens (laying hens). The examined samples were collected from three laying hen farms (white Hy- Line breed) in El- Dakahlia, El-Sharkia and El-Giza Governorates, Egypt. Five samples of each tissue were collected at 3 stages; start, peak and end, of egg production from the three farms with the total of 45 samples for each tissue type. The examined samples were extracted and prepared to organochlorine pesticide detection by gas Chromatography system equipped with electron capture detector (ECD). Exactly 14 of organochlorine pesticide residues were analyzed. The obtained results revealed that the Methoxychlor, PP-DDE, Dieldrin, Aldrin, Heptachlor epoxide and α-BHC residues were not detected in all the examined samples. Meanwhile, PP-DDT, PP-DDD, Endrin, Endosulfan, Heptachlor, Δ-BHC, ɤ-BHC (lindane) and ɤ-chlordane were detected in the examined samples in different concentrations. No considerable difference in organochlorine residues could be noticed either between the different Governorates or between the different stages of egg production. The results exhibited relatively higher levels of these residues in skin and liver samples comparing with those in the muscle samples.

Monitoring of Organochlorine Pesticides Residues in Five Fruits using Gas Liquid Chromatography Equipped with Electron Capture Detector (GLC-ECD)

India is the largest producer of fruits as they are important part of their economy. But they are badly affected by insect-pest attack during harvesting. Farmers use a large amount of pesticides to protect them but due to their longer persistence they found in fruits in small quantities. This paper described an analytical methodology for the monitoring of 20 organochlorine pesticides in 5 fruits viz. pineapple (Ananas comosus), apple (Malus pumila), plum (Prunus domestica), papaya (Carica papaya) and mango (Mangifera indica) by using gas liquid chromatography equipped with electron capture detector (GLC-ECD). During the monitoring work it has been found that each fruit was contaminated with pesticides. Pineapple was found contaminated with β-BHC, δ-BHC, heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin, endrin and methoxychlor; apple was found contaminated γ-BHC, δ-BHC, heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan II and methoxychlor; plum and papaya were found contaminated with γ-BHC, β-BHC, δ-BHC, heptachlor epoxide, 4,4′-DDE, endrin, endosulfan sulfate and methoxychlor; mango was found contaminated with β-BHC, δ-BHC, 4,4′-DDE, endrin, endosulfan sulfate and methoxychlor. However, the detected concentration of pesticides was below the MRL values but their long term use can cause serious health problems.