Water Diplomacy: And the Share of the Nile River between Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan

Water diplomacy across international borders can be a useful tool in solving problems related to the shared water resources of the political entities involved, especially when the interests of the countries are diverse. Water disputes can likely lead to potential conflicts if not properly address in a holistic manner to satisfy all parties concerned. Many discussions about water resources that cut across international borders have focused on their potential for either conflict or cooperation. Africa as a continent with shared resources is not isolated from these enormous challenges concerning the share of natural resources such as water. Africa is generally seen as a fragile region, and the signs of water conflicts in it have begun to appear in clear and dangerous forms. Diplomatic options for settling water disputes and avoiding any potential repercussions seems for the likelihood. Notwithstanding, these options Water Diplomacy has many challenges that limit its effectiveness owing to the deep political tensions among the countries. This study focused on analyzing the concept of water diplomacy and look into the dispute over the share of the Nile River, while highlighting the legitimate right of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan in line with international conventions on water resources. Received: 24 September 2021 / Accepted: 25 November 2021 / Published: 5 January 2022

Water Diplomacy and Its Strategic Significance for Sustainable Development Goals and Global Security Architecture

This article presents new approaches to water diplomacy connected with the United Nations 2030 Agenda. The research question is what is the role and significance of water diplomacy for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and global security architecture? The paper is based on the theory of interdependence. To illustrate this concept, the author used several case studies to identify the international security role of water diplomacy in the context of SDGs. The case studies point to the greater likelihood that wars in the twenty-first century will be due to freshwater disputes; water diplomacy should be a crucial instrument for the SDGs implementation. Water diplomacy has the potential to become an effective platform for international cooperation in the face of many current and future global water challenges. Water diplomacy combines preventive and reactive measures, as well as the mediation and implementation of solutions. It is crucial for regional and world security. The results of this paper show future research directions on water diplomacy.

Critical geopolitics, the Shanghai cooperation organization and the sino-kazakh water agreements

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), previously known as the Shanghai Five, was formed in June 2001 as a security engagement organization. It is a highly influential organization in the Eurasian continent, and most Central Asian countries – Kazakhstan included - are members of SCO, as well as China. In recent years, the Chinese water diplomacy towards Kazakhstan has advanced in different agreements that are shaping the patterns of water security in Central Asia. The Chinese strategic interest in the development of the scope of the SCO in this region has made Kazakh transboundary water issues to advance in negotiations. However, these agreements have been made in a bilateral scheme, which is considered relatively unequal towards Kazakh interests; therefore, in spite of the Kazakh efforts, the SCO so far has not turned into a water security organization. This paper is going to analyze the current trends in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, as well as the Sino-Kazakh cooperation platform, especially regarding transboundary water resources. From the perspective of the critical geopolitics scholarship and its considerations regarding the concepts of hegemony and zones of influence, the idea that the Sino-Kazakh cooperation has advanced following Chinese interests is going to be defended. In conclusion, this paper states that due to the lack of interest regarding Chinese water diplomacy, and despite of Kazakh efforts, the SCO is not in the near future launching great initiatives regarding water security in the region, reinforcing the Chinese diplomacy of bilateral water agreements. Recebido em 14/04/2021Aprovado em 19/09/2021

Features of Water Diplomacy in Central Asia

Water issues are traditionally one of the most complex and controversial issues in Central Asia. Over the 30 years since independence, the five republics have not been able to come to a single agreement on the use of water resources. Mainly because their interests do not coincide. The region is conventionally divided into agricultural and energy republics. Some need to irrigate their lands, others are interested in producing electricity. Each of the five republics strives to take into account primarily its own interests, sometimes disregarding the interests of its neighbors. The article deals with the problems of the development of water diplomacy between the states of Central Asia. It is noted that this problem is relevant for the region due to the peculiarities of the position and legal regime of transboundary rivers in Central Asia.

Water Diplomacy — The New Modus Operandi of EU Diplomacy? Innovative Methods in Diplomatic Practice

Summary This article explores how EU water diplomacy can enrich the current debate on science diplomacy, primarily in the science in diplomacy category. It aims to contribute to the debate on diplomatic instruments and their innovative elements. It focuses on new practices in the field of water diplomacy, including (1) the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders in the diplomatic process from an early stage, (2) a multi-dimensional approach, and (3) multidisciplinary science-based diplomacy. More generally, the article identifies and conceptualises particular diplomatic methods, (1) the internalisation of scientific expertise, (2) cross-cutting lexical understanding across diplomatic agendas, and (3) pluri-disciplinarity, which facilitates the interconnection of science and diplomacy within a diplomatic framework. It thus addresses the commonly acknowledged challenge of interaction between scientists and diplomats and shows that analysis of diplomatic methods may bring more clarity to the peripheral or often neglected science in diplomacy category of science diplomacy.

ETHIOPIA: TRUMP’S SECURITIZATION ‘SPEECH ACT’ ON THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM (GERD). A RISK ON THE ETHIOPIA-EGYPT WATER DIPLOMACY

The involvement of the United States in the negotiation process of the GERD was taken as a good step forward to end the belligerent water diplomacy between Egypt and Ethiopia. However, America’s peace proposal which is named ‘the Trump deal’ ends up further complicating the two countries water diplomacy. Trump’s securitization ‘speech act’ calling Egypt to ‘blow up’ Ethiopia’s dam further escalated the risk of water war between the two states. Eventually, the Trump lead negotiation eroded the perception that the United States would generate a good proposal to halt the belligerency of the Ethio-Egypt relations. This article is intended to chart a new insight on the following questions: given the unpleasant water diplomacy between Egypt and Ethiopia how ‘the Trump deal’ and securitization ‘speech act’ further complicated the matter? Why President Trump worked in securitizing the construction of the GERD on the Blue Nile? And how does the nature of securitization and counter-securitization activities worked in the water diplomacy between Egypt and Ethiopia? In the process of analysis the Copenhagen School (CS) concept of securitization is employed. Keywords: Egypt, Ethiopia, Nile, Dam, Trump, Securitization.

Culture as a Fluid Interlocutor: Perspectives on Water Diplomacy from South Asia

Summary This article articulates culture in the terrain of water diplomacy. Situating the ‘local’ turn in transboundary water discourse, we argue that dialogue should be made a distinct precursor to formal processes of negotiations in South Asia. Notions of ‘culture’ and ‘community’ are revisited to examine shared ground between social/cultural anthropology and diplomacy studies. The central proposition here is that the idea of transition from political community to water community highlights the potential of culture as a fluid interlocutor. Culture, we argue, can be a non-verbal communicator not only for constituting water communities but also for giving meaning to water flowing in transboundary rivers in holistic terms. Given that these holistic ways of knowing and understanding water are not alien to ‘South Asian perspectives’, culture is offered as a transformative dialogic technique which can help rewrite the notion of community in complex geopolitical settings such as that of South Asia.