The Adyton at the Temple of Apollo at Bassae: Multiple Cult Worship in the Adyton

<p>Situated on Mount Kotilion in the Peloponnese, the Temple of Apollo at Bassae sits high in the middle of a mountain range. Upon rediscovery, it became evident that most of the offerings had long since disappeared, and this was in turn paired with a lack of primary literature. Though the temple is mentioned in Pausanias’ work, discussion about the cultic aspects of the temple is severely lacking. This leads to a large gap in the knowledge of the temple’s religious function. It is for this reason that the architecture of Bassae is explored to help understand the cultic aspects of this temple. This thesis shows that multiple cults were celebrated at the temple of Bassae, and that there is a high probability that multiple cult worship occurred in the adyton of the building. The cult at Bassae has been celebrated since geometric times, and worship to Apollo was fairly consistent until the sanctuary’s demise in the third century BCE. Three epikleseis are often associated with this temple: Apollo Epikourios, Apollo Bassitas and Hyperborean Apollo. The epithet of Epikourios comes from Pausanias’ passage, and nowhere else. The original reason for this epithet may be either medicinal or martial, and both are explored within this thesis. Bassitas is another epithet provided. However, this is in the form of a singular archaeological find, a small bronze tablet found in the wider Kotilion sanctuary. The third epithet, Hyperborean, is a tenuous but commonly made connection. This epithet relies heavily on the localised subject matter of the sculptural programme at Bassae. The architecture of the building is also in need of discussion. The temple at Bassae is famed for its odd, and in some cases, unparalleled architectural design. The temple is on a north-south axis, and features not only a northern entranceway, but also an opening in the eastern wall, leading into the adyton. This eastern doorway allows light to enter twice a year, which hits the southern wall. The decorative features of the temple are unparalleled, with the first known Corinthian column and extended engaged Ionic columns. These unusual design features create a focus within the adyton. Within the adyton, four positions can be considered possible sites for housing offerings or cult statues. These include the southwest corner, the centre of the southern wall, the centre of the northern limits of the adyton directly south of the Corinthian column, and finally, the Corinthian column itself. The evidence for these positions being a focus for cult comes from architectural features, such as the paving of the adyton floor, the light phenomenon and a small plinth. These four positions are by no means definite, and this thesis discusses the probability of each of these positions in terms of the likelihood of them being the focus of a cult. While the southwest corner is the most likely position for a cult statue, the Corinthian column seems the least likely. The architecture at the Temple of Apollo at Bassae strongly suggests worship occurring inn the adyton of the temple, and it seems likely it was at least one of these three epithets that was celebrated in one of the four positions in the adyton.</p>

The Adyton at the Temple of Apollo at Bassae: Multiple Cult Worship in the Adyton

<p>Situated on Mount Kotilion in the Peloponnese, the Temple of Apollo at Bassae sits high in the middle of a mountain range. Upon rediscovery, it became evident that most of the offerings had long since disappeared, and this was in turn paired with a lack of primary literature. Though the temple is mentioned in Pausanias’ work, discussion about the cultic aspects of the temple is severely lacking. This leads to a large gap in the knowledge of the temple’s religious function. It is for this reason that the architecture of Bassae is explored to help understand the cultic aspects of this temple. This thesis shows that multiple cults were celebrated at the temple of Bassae, and that there is a high probability that multiple cult worship occurred in the adyton of the building. The cult at Bassae has been celebrated since geometric times, and worship to Apollo was fairly consistent until the sanctuary’s demise in the third century BCE. Three epikleseis are often associated with this temple: Apollo Epikourios, Apollo Bassitas and Hyperborean Apollo. The epithet of Epikourios comes from Pausanias’ passage, and nowhere else. The original reason for this epithet may be either medicinal or martial, and both are explored within this thesis. Bassitas is another epithet provided. However, this is in the form of a singular archaeological find, a small bronze tablet found in the wider Kotilion sanctuary. The third epithet, Hyperborean, is a tenuous but commonly made connection. This epithet relies heavily on the localised subject matter of the sculptural programme at Bassae. The architecture of the building is also in need of discussion. The temple at Bassae is famed for its odd, and in some cases, unparalleled architectural design. The temple is on a north-south axis, and features not only a northern entranceway, but also an opening in the eastern wall, leading into the adyton. This eastern doorway allows light to enter twice a year, which hits the southern wall. The decorative features of the temple are unparalleled, with the first known Corinthian column and extended engaged Ionic columns. These unusual design features create a focus within the adyton. Within the adyton, four positions can be considered possible sites for housing offerings or cult statues. These include the southwest corner, the centre of the southern wall, the centre of the northern limits of the adyton directly south of the Corinthian column, and finally, the Corinthian column itself. The evidence for these positions being a focus for cult comes from architectural features, such as the paving of the adyton floor, the light phenomenon and a small plinth. These four positions are by no means definite, and this thesis discusses the probability of each of these positions in terms of the likelihood of them being the focus of a cult. While the southwest corner is the most likely position for a cult statue, the Corinthian column seems the least likely. The architecture at the Temple of Apollo at Bassae strongly suggests worship occurring inn the adyton of the temple, and it seems likely it was at least one of these three epithets that was celebrated in one of the four positions in the adyton.</p>

Development of Heat and Heat Retention in the Solar Green House Dryer

Solar greenhouse drying is a method of removing moisture from the food material in which drying medium is solar energy which is easily available and low in cost for farmers. The solar energy is decreases in the monsoon months in comparison to non-monsoon months. The decrease in the solar energy results in lower temperatures in the solar greenhouse dryer. The aluminium foil which has 88% reflectivity and black mulch sheet which is best absorber and emitter of heat radiation were used to increase the heat in the solar green house dryer. Different orientations of aluminium foil and black mulch sheet were used. By using both aluminium foil and black mulch sheet, the following treatments were experimented: T1 (control – without modifications), T2 (black mulch sheet on the floor), T3 (combination of aluminium foil on southern wall and black mulch sheet on the floor), T4 (aluminium foil on southern wall), T5 (aluminium foil on three sides of the dryer), T6 (combination of aluminium foil on three sides and black mulch sheet on the floor), T7 (combination of alternate strips of aluminium foil on two opposite sides, aluminium foil on southern wall and black mulch sheet on the floor) and T8 (alternate strips of aluminium foil on two opposite sides and aluminium foil on southern wall). The parameters viz; temperature and relative humidity were recorded in both solar green house dryer and ambient conditions. According to the results, treatment T7 was shown best results in terms of maximum temperature difference and maximum relative humidity difference. Treatment T7 exhibited maximum temperature difference between inside and outside the dryer of 19.5 °C and also maximum relative humidity difference between outside and inside the dryer of 31%.

Primeros resultados de la excavación del castillo medieval de Dos Hermanas (Montemayor, Córdoba)

First results of the excavation of the medieval castle of Dos Hermanas (Montemayor, Cordoba)In the south of the kingdom of Córdoba, there is the castle so-called Dos Hermanas, located in the municipality of the current town of Montemayor. It has been considered that the construction of the castle of this stately town was the result of the first moments of decline of the fortress of Dos Hermanas, located on the bank of the Carchena stream. Currently, a first excavation campaign has been carried out that brings us closer to the anthropic occupation of the site. At the same time, the archival research gives new information to the history of the site, exceeding the date of 1340, when Don Martín Alonso de Córdoba partially destroyed the Arab fortress of Dos Hermanas to build the castle of Montemayor. The first data extracted from the field work support the written sources, providing us with new data that allow us to make a more complete and novel interpretation. The survival of part of the facilities of the Dos Hermanas castle with an occupation from Roman times to the sixteenth century that shows the total non-depopulation of the place in the fourteenth century, as previously thought. A high degree of conservation of the structures found inside the wall enclosure appears a southern bay with stables with nine mangers. To the west, there is a vain and an angled staircase that allowed access from the parade ground until the round pass over the main door, which is also preserved. The objective of this proposal will be to present these first results of the archaeological intervention centered on the southern wall of the castle. These research works are accompanied by a consolidation project of the main structures, all financed by the Provincial Delegation of Cordoba and Montemayor Town Hall, whose continuity is developed in 2019 and 2020.

RELIEF OF THE QUARRIES OF THE MIDDLE POBUZHZHIA (ON THE EXAMPLE SABARIV QUARRY)

The twenty-seven active quarries for the extraction of building materials are located on the territory of the Middle Pobuzhzhia. The quarries of the crystalline rocks (granite, migmatite, granodiorite, charnockite, etc.) are dominant. Also, there are loam and less often sand quarries. They are concentrated in the western part of the Middle Pobuzhzhia, near city Vinnytsia. Most of the them are the type of closed stepped quarries. The quarries of the crystalline rocks are predominantly rectangular in shape with narrow benches of working benches and a flat pit floor without heaped forms of relief. Loam quarries are usually gradually declining, some of them are now inactive having internal sheating dumps. The length of such quarries is 300 – 450 m, with one working highwall. Sand quarries are partially active and covered with turf. The length of these quarries is usually 300 – 350 m, with up to 2 – 3 highwalls, also there are external sheating dumps. The Sabariv granite quarry, located 1 km south of city Vinnytsia on the right bank of the Southern Bug River is carefully surveyed. The extraction of useful rocks dates back to 1958. Mining is carried out by one overburden and three extraction highwalls. The maximum length of the quarry is 620 m, width – 370 m, depth – 54 m. The length of extraction benches is 14 m. The quarry has the excavated (denudation) and heaped (accumulative) forms of relief. The excavated relief consists of a mine floor, benches of the overburden stratum and extraction highwalls. The mine floor has a shape close to the rectangle. It is made of the third production horizon of the quarry where currently the mining works are carrying out and of the insubstantial part of the second extraction highwalls toe. The shape of a surface of the mine floor is generally aligned. The mine floor is bounded by the little changed and worked out northern, western and eastern mine walls, western part of the southern wall and significantly changed eastern part of the southern wall. The quarry has the one overburden and three extraction highwalls. Benches are located between the benches of different levels. Their maximum width is 50 m. At least, the benches of three levels can be traced. The heaped relief of the Sabariv quarry is presented predominantly by external sheating dumps of the overburden strata. They do not have a specific location. The dumps are terrace-like and have a shape of elongated embankments. They are located at elevations of 260–271 meters. The height of the dry dump is 10–15 m. The dumps of the overburden strata are recultivated. The forest melioration is carried out throughout the territory. The inner quarry dumps are located on the mine floor. Such dumps are not widespread and have low capacity. Key words: quarry; mining relief; excavated relief; heaped forms; Middle Pobuzhzhia.

Matemáticas puras y mixtas en una cenefa atribuida al artista mahonés Pascual Calbó Caldés (1752 - 1817)

El artista menorquín Pascual Calbó Caldés (1752 – 1817), autor de una enciclopedia científica que ha llegado hasta nosotros con el nombre de Obras didácticas, pintó en el salón de la Casa Vidal (Mahón, calle de Isabel II, nº 21) una cenefa en la que aparecen representaciones alegóricas de la escultura, pintura, arquitectura, astronomía, música, literatura, matemáticas y agricultura. En este artículo mostramos algunos detalles relativos a las alegorías de las matemáticas (lado este) y la astronomía (lado sur) que pueden escapar al ojo del observador común. Palabras clave: Pascual Calbó, Matemáticas, Pintura, Menorca, Siglo XVIII. ABSTRACT The artist from Menorca Pascual Calbó Caldés (1752 – 1817), author of a scientific encyclopedia which has been preserved under the title of Obras didácticas, painted in the living room of the Casa Vidal (Mahón, 21st of Isabel II Street) a frieze in which we can find allegorical representations of sculpture, painting, architecture, music, literature, mathematics and agriculture. In this paper, we present some details regarding the allegories of mathematics (eastern wall) and astronomy (southern wall) that may scape the eye of the common observer. Keywords: Pascual Calbó, Mathematics, Painting, Minorca, 18th century.

The Heraldic Sign Tamgha of the Proto-Bulgarian Ruler’s Clan Dulo in its Representative Function

In essence and function, the heraldic sign tamgha of the Proto-Bulgarian ruler’s clan Dulo is a sign of ownership with one primary-basic function – the possession, and two secondary-derived and additional functions – the representative and the protective (apotropheic). Khan Asparuh ordered the tamgha of the Dulo clan to be carved on a suitable stone and to be built over the main gate of the Belgorod Fortress as a sign that there is a descendant of the Dulo clan, who is also a ruler, a khan of the entrusting Proto-Bulgarian tribes. He directed the repair of the Drustar fortress and ordered the tamgha of Dulo clan to be carved on the fortress walls. The wall in front of the village of Byala, Varna district is the last and the most southern wall that Khan Asparuh builds. On it the tamgha of the Dulo clan is carved between two Runic letters, so the whole inscription translates as The State of Dulo. The urns with the ashes of the khans and their wives from the First Bulgarian Kingdom are stored in a special pit into the most hidden underground tunnel connected to the palace of Khan Krum. The title канартигин is formed on the basis of the Proto-Bulgarian expression *каган-ирт- тикин, literally “prince-after-kagan”, i.e. “crown prince”.