The Principles of Interior Organization (A Kitchen in the middle ages of the 1st millennium B.C.)

The present work is an attempt of analyzing the kitchen excavated on Grakliani Gora in 2014. The analysis consits of a detailed description of ceramics found in this area and also trying to find its analogies. Furthermore, the work looks at arrangement of the oven excavated on the territory of the kitchen and provides its comparison to the earliest ovens. Kitchen areas excavated both in the western world (Olynthus, Lefkada) and in the eastern world (Gonur Depe) are used for the research of kitchens and other agricultural dwellings as part of an interior. This is an attempt to determine the cultural affiliation of the kitchen found on Grakliani Gora. Given the fact that there are no such separated kitchen areas found among the sites on the territory of Georgia, this work will give us a basic knowledge to interpret future findings.

For a novel identification of the ‘first palace of the kings of Egrisi’ in Nokalakevi-Archaeopolis

Because of the complicated foreign policy in the fourth century (regular attacks of the Goths and Huns on Roman Empire, the rise of Persia and subordination of Kartli, Armenia and Albania), Rome was unable to exert proper control over its eastern provinces, including the eastern Black Sea coast and, accordingly, it was compelled to put up with the Lazis becoming more and more active in western Georgia [Muskhelishvili 2012:39]. Apparently, the Lazis evaluated the existing situation properly and gradually made their neighboring tribes of the Apsils, Abazgs and Sanigs subordinate to them [Lomouri 2011:119-120]. Unification of the western Georgian tribes by the Lazis and formation of a strong kingdom was in the interests of the Roman Empire too. Scholars suggest that Rome encouraged this process, rather than hindering it, because presence of a strong kingdom in western Georgia which had control over various passes and fortified cities on the Black Sea coast would serve as a defensive barrier for eastern provinces of Rome from northern nomadic tribes [Melikishvili 1970:556-557; Lomouri 2011:120; Muskhelishvili 2012:39]. Procopius of Caesarea puts special emphasis on this situation. According to him, “For the barbarians inhabiting the Caucasus Lazika is just an obstacle” [Procopius of Caesarea 1965:94]. Thus, from the third century, the Lazis gradually annexed the tribes residing in western Georgia and laid foundation for the kingdom of Lazika (Egrisi), whose borders approximately fell within the limits of western Georgia (Fig. 1). The king of Lazika had subordinated the neighboring tribes, but, on the other hand, formally it was a vassal of the Roman (Byzantine) emperor. According to Procopius of Caesarea, the Lazis “were Romans’ subordinate, but they did not pay any tribute or submit to them. The only thing they did was that when their king died, the Roman king would send an heir to the throne, or the symbol of power, to them. The latter would rigorously protect the borders of this country together with his subordinates so that the hostile Hunns would be unable to invade Roman lands from the Lazis’ bordering Caucasus Mountains passing through Lazika. They firmly protected them without getting any money or army from the Romans and did not go to war with the Romans either [Procopius of Caesarea 1965:72-73]. It is obvious that despite gaining factual independence, Romans still had considerable influence on western Georgia. It is not surprising - from the first century BC, after Pompey campaigned against Colchis and later (in the first-second cc AD) Rome deployed garrisons on the Black Sea coast, Rome gained a firm foothold in western Georgia. Analysis of archaeological material shows that this influence was not only political, but economic and cultural as well. For instance, the inland area of western Georgia yielded a large number of Roman coins of the first three centuries of the common era. Among them remarkable is a hoard of silver coins of the second-third centuries (907 items) discovered in Village Eki (Senaki Municipality) in 1971. It included a drachma of King Orod II of Parthia (57-38) and didrachmas and denarii minted in the names of Roman emperors Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, Commodus, Pertinax, Niger, Septimius Severus and so on. 774 coins of the Eki hoard are struck in the mint of Caesarea, 131 – in the mints of Rome and those of the eastern provinces of Roman Empire, and the rest – in other provinces [G. Dundua, V. Tsirghvava 1971:42:45]. This and other contemporaneous discoveries prove that in the late Roman period Roman influence in western Georgia, especially in its western regions, was really strong.

Traces of Early State formations in South East Georgia, Caucasus - response and impact on changes in the climate and environment Shiraqi Plane, South East Georgia, Caucasus

Study of past changes in environment and, its effect on human society delivers key information to reconstruct the hystorical past but also to project future changes and their effects. Study focus on South-East Georgia, Caucasus region, which represents natural polygon of long term changes in the environment. Study area represents semi-arid Shiraqi plain in South-East Georgia (see the map below). It is characterized with annual precipitation <600mm and shows open dry steppic landscape today. However, recent data collected using remote sensing and archaeological studies, deliver evidences of early human inhabitation of this area, starting from the Paleolithic and forming a constant chain of active settlement through the time, until sudden abrupt at the end of the Bronze Age. Geomorphologically Shiraqi plane represents 800 sqr. km of almost flat area with average height of 600 m above Sea level, surrounded by chains of mountains creating a natural walls surrounding the plane. There are almost no settlements in the area, devoid of water resources today. Archaeo-Botanic and soil studies assume that the region was covered by forests, Hydro modelling shows possibility of existence of well developed water network with a shallow lake in the center of plane. Remote sensing data and resent archaeological excavations at Didnauri site provides clear evidences of early state formation, with favorable paleo-environmental conditions. The goal of current study is to shed light on historic changes in the environment of the region, its natural and anthropogenic factors and consequently response of human society on these changes.

The Melon Short paleobotanical and historical-linguistic review

Vegetation occupies a special place on the Earth. It was easily recognized by our remote ancestors who worshipped plants and animals together with the visible world. From the biblical viewpoint about the origin of the world and living organs and resulting from further scientific conceptions, origin and evolution of plants and their special function have always been given great importance. Plants are an unconditional source of life on earth. With their development, early humans changed their ideas about and relationship with the changing environment. After the formation of convenient natural conditions, in different regions of the earth humans started developing a new form of production – land farming and cattle breeding and began creating new firm settlements. Consequently, there emerged new concepts –cultivated plants and domesticated animals - in economic activity. Improved species of plants and animals were created by means of human interference, which is why their majority have preserved only the gene and some characteristics of their wild ancestors. One of such cultivated agricultural plants is the melon with its very interesting history of evolution.

Undo Caves Multi-staged Karstic System and Temporary Camp of the Neanderthal Hunters

In Georgia, a strong foundation for scientific study of this period was developed in 1930-ies. Since then more than 500 Paleolithic sites were identified The frequency of paleolithic sites on the territory of Georgia was determined by geographic position of Georgia itself, as it is situated at the crossroads of Africa, Asia and Europe According to some archaeologists the archaeological evidence demonstrates the different local-cultural groups. Despite the small territory we have at least 5 local-cultural versions in the Middle Palaeolithic singled out with us four out of which are represented in the Rioni-Kvirila basin (Fig ). Most quantity of levallois industries were recovered in Imereti region (Western Georgia). 1. Drouchula,-Kudaro Local-cultural group.Mousterian assemblages characterized by blades and elongated points, as recovered in Drouchula, Tsona,Kudaro and other sites, resemble the “Tabun D-type” and Hummallian entities in the Levant.Unfortunatly, we have not the dates from this sites, but we assume that they are younger than Levantian “Tabun-D type”; at the same time, this industry has some similarities with the Northern-Caucasus Miqoqian industries , as well. 2. Tsutskhvati caves Local-cultural group. Multi-stage cave system characterized by the industry which resemble the Zagros region, but there are some differences-the non-Levalloias industry of Tsutskhvati is denticulated; 3. Tskaltsitela local-cultural group- Levalloiasian, denticulated industry (by M.Nioradze); 4. Tsopi Local-cultural.The industry of Tsopi site differs from above mentioned sites by the high quantity of the tools of Quina and Demi-Quina type; 5. Tskhinvali local-cultural group (according to v. Lubin)-Levalois, Unretouched industry. Another type of industry is represented I Ortvala Klde, Djieti open-air site etc.- Mousterian assemblages such as in Ortvala Klde demonstrates similarities with the Middle Paleolithic industries of Anatolia, the Zagros region-recurrent Levallois big number of the convergent tools. Most of the local-cultural groups and the sites are discovered in Western Georgia (Imereti Region) A first evidence of the Middle Paleolithic hunters temporary camp which, possibly has been used as place for some kind of rituals and where is represented a first evidence of the cave rock-art in Georgia has been determined in Rion-Kvirila basin as well. This is a cave-site named “Undo Cave”. Recently, we discovered some other cave-sites near Undo Cave. This fact gave a reason to consider Undo Cave as a one of the caves of Multi-staged cave system which doesn’t belong to any above mentioned groups.

Pitiakhshs in Iberia in Classical Epoch

Artifacts found in Village Bori in 1902 are kept in the Hermitage in Sankt Petersburg. Among the finds particularly interesting is a silver cup with an Aramaic inscription:” Kind Pitiakhsh Buzmihr”. The inscription revealed that there existed an institution of pitiakhsh in the kingdom of Iberia in Roman epoch. Indeed, it is interesting whether the grave which yielded the mentioned object was the tomb of a pitiakhsh. The point is that in Bori no sarcophagi or crypts are encountered, there are only pit-burials there which, in my opinion, excludes presence of a pitiakhsh’s tomb in the area and the rich inventory recovered together with the bowl in question does not belong to a pitiakhsh. It is more likely that the bowl had been presented by Pitiakhsh Buzmihr. The Roman-period kingdom of Iberia knows a few similar cases. But where exactly is Pitiakhsh Buzmihr’s grave? The question has not been answered yet. Apart from other issues, the article deals with the chronological order of the pitiakhshs of Armaziskhevi cemetery and suggests that pitiakhs are buried only in graves NN 1, 2 and 3. Furtheremore, it discusses the problem of interrelationship between the pitiakhs’ graves and the structures found in Armaziskhevi and passes an opinion that the structures date to an earlier period than the graves. In the 70s (not later than 75 AD), the residence was destroyed by an earthquake and since then the area was used as a cemetery of pitiakhshs of Armaziskhevi and their family members.

Genesis of Artificially Deformed Early Medieval Skulls Discovered at Samtavro Cemetery and Their Historical Significance

The work ‘Genesis of Artificially Deformed Early Medieval Skulls Discovered at Samtavro Cemetery and Their Historical Significance’ looks at early medieval regular and artificially deformed skulls obtained from Samtavro cemetery and preserved at the Anthropological Research Laboratory of the History and Ethnology Institute of the Tbilisi State University. Apart from the skulls, the work deals with the catalogue of the craniological collection and individual data for every skull preserved in this institution. The work also relies on the information of the records kept in the Georgian National Museum, based on which knowledge about early medieval types of graves, burial rites and artifacts of Samtavro cemetery has been obtained. The work looks at the types of cranial deformation, gender and age structure of the buried, physiological stress markers and anomaly frequencies among the population of this period. It also outlines distribution of the inventory among the deformed and non-deformed skulls in order to estimate whether the deformed ones belonged to the upper class society. Charts are compiled based on distribution of deformed and non-deformed skulls obtained from Samtavro cemetery according to gender and age, which provides a clear picture in respect to average life expectancy among the individuals with deformed and non-deformed skulls. In order to find the reason for the deformation, historical sources are considered and final explanation for why the residents of Mtskheta practiced artificial deformation of skulls is provided.

Hitherto Unknown Technology of Bronze Age Inlay

Daggers discovered at Tserovani cemetery of the Bronze Age - prominent specimens of decorative-applied art selected for the new exhibition of the Museum of Archaeology of the State Museum-Reserve of Greater Mtskheta – were submitted to the restoration-research laboratory of archaeological and ethnographic objects of S. Janashia Museum of Georgia of the Georgian National Museum because of repeated corrosion in some areas. Dagger N7232 is composed and its handle is abundantly incrusted with vitreous mass. Most of the incrustation is produced with the method of melting vitreous mass inside a metal cutting. A strange exception is white circular inlay against blue background situated in three triangular cuttings. One of incrustations is damaged. The remnants were found in the cut of damaged incrustation were the vitreous mass and small grey, tubular rods made of 94% tin and 4% copper alloy (pewter) fitted in a wooden remnant. Research allowed us to interpret presumable methods and prominence of producing incrustation: white glass embedded in circular silver partitions against the background of blue glass. The analyses showed that the dagger was made from the typical for the late bronze period alloy- tin bronze. The artefacts, with all signs of historical development (technology, decoration methods, and ornamental motives) belong to the Colchian culture and can date in frame of this culture. Based on the presently available data it can be stated that we are dealing with a completely new technology unknown up to present and that it can be regarded as predecessor of the cloisonne incrustation.

Contacts of Bronze - Early Iron Age Archaeological Cultures with Synchronous Cultures of the Outer World (General overview)

The Eneolithic and Bronze-Early Iron Age cultures prevalent in the territory of Western Georgia do not seem to be isolated from the archeological cultures of the outside world, but there are observed quite close contact-relations between them. In the Eneolithic Age, with pottery and one group of stone artifacts, there are close contacts with Upper Imereti and pre-Maykop materials. The touching points are also revealed between the Dolmen and Proto-Colchian cultures. According to some of the metal artefacts of Upper Svaneti and Upper Racha (Brill Cemetery), contacts are observed with the materials of the Maykop and Digoria cultural materials…., Which took place through communication routes leading to some of the passes of the Central Caucasus Range. We have met elements of Mtkvari-Araks and Proto-Colchian cultures in Dablagomi settlement (Samtredia region). With some of the materials found in Colchis, some contacts are revealed with the Beden culture existing on the territory of Shida Kartli. In the territory of Western Georgia (Adjara, Eastern Colchis) mainly in the composition of bronze treasures are found the axes from Central Transcaucasian, which must have gotten here as a result of the relations between the populations of Western and Eastern Georgia. Imported pottery found in southwestern Colchis (Makhvilauri hill-settlement) reveals certain relations with the Proto-Hittite world. The connections with separate artifacts of Bronze Age ceramic materials found in Colchis with materials from Asia Minor can be seen.

Ancient Metallurgical Center in Georgia

Georgia is situated in Caucasia, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Its terrain is created by the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus, rivers with great volume of water flowing between them and coastal plains. The territory of the whole Caucasus and, specifically, Georgia, is one of the main communication areas linking ancient Steppe empires with Near Eastern civilizations (pl. 1), which, alongside rich natural conditions, significantly determined formation of human society from ancient times and proved favourable to its development. Formation and evolution of the human society in any corner of the earth, from the earliest times to ancient civilizations, largely depends on the geographic environment and reasonable exploitation of natural resources by humans. With its mild climate, fertile lands, flora, fauna, alpine pastures and low-lying fields, diverse natural resources, extensive river network, etc. Georgia has always provided convenient conditions for human habitation and development of economic activities. Southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountain Range and the highlands of the Lesser Caucasus are especially rich in metallogenic provinces. The present article deals with when production of different metals started here and whether it became one of the main bases for development of the society.