Classifying Forest Structure of Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Habitat Using Structure from Motion Elevation Data De-Rived from sUAS Imagery

Small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) and relatively new photogrammetry software solutions are creating opportunities for forest managers to perform spatial analysis more efficiently and cost-effectively. This study aims to identify a method for leveraging these technologies to analyze vertical forest structure of red-cockaded woodpecker habitat in Montgomery County, Texas. Traditional sampling methods would require numerous hours of ground surveying and data collection using various measuring techniques. Structure from Motion (SfM), a photogrammetric method for creating 3-D structure from 2-D images, provides an alternative to relatively expensive LIDAR sensing technologies and can accurately model the high level of complexity found within our study area’s vertical structure. DroneDeploy, a photogrammetry processing app service, was used to post-process and create a point cloud, which was later further processed into a Canopy Height Model (CHM). Using supervised, object-based classification and comparing multiple classifier algorithms, classifications maps were generated with a best overall accuracy of 84.8% using Support Vector Machine in ArcGIS Pro software. Appropriately sized training sample datasets, correctly processed elevation data, and proper image segmentation were among the major factors impacting classification accuracy during the numerous classification iterations performed.

Demystifying the Differences between Structure-from-Motion Software Packages for Pre-Processing Drone Data

With the increased availability of low-cost, off-the-shelf drone platforms, drone data become easy to capture and are now a key component of environmental assessments and monitoring. Once the data are collected, there are many structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry software options available to pre-process the data into digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthomosaics for further environmental analysis. However, not all software packages are created equal, nor are their outputs. Here, we evaluated the workflows and output products of four desktop SfM packages (AgiSoft Metashape, Correlator3D, Pix4Dmapper, WebODM), across five input datasets representing various ecosystems. We considered the processing times, output file characteristics, colour representation of orthomosaics, geographic shift, visual artefacts, and digital surface model (DSM) elevation values. No single software package was determined the “winner” across all metrics, but we hope our results help others demystify the differences between the options, allowing users to make an informed decision about which software and parameters to select for their specific application. Our comparisons highlight some of the challenges that may arise when comparing datasets that have been processed using different parameters and different software packages, thus demonstrating a need to provide metadata associated with processing workflows.

Conceptual Design of a Novel Unmanned Ground Effect Vehicle (UGEV) and Flow Control Integration Study

In this study, the conceptual design of an unmanned ground effect vehicle (UGEV), based on in-house analytical tools and CFD calculations, followed by flow control studies, is presented. Ground effect vehicles can operate, in a more efficient way, over calm closed seas, taking advantage of the aerodynamic interaction between the ground and the vehicle. The proposed UGEV features a useful payload capacity of 300 kg and a maximum range of 300 km cruising at 100 kt. Regarding the aerodynamic layout, a platform which combines the basic geometry characteristics of the blended wing body (BWB), and box wing (BXW) configurations is introduced. This hybrid layout aims to incorporate the most promising features from both configurations, while it enables the UGEV to operate under adverse flight conditions of the atmospheric boundary layer of the earth. In order to enhance the performance characteristics of the platform, both passive and active flow control techniques are studied and incorporated into the conceptual design phase of the vehicle. For the passive flow control techniques, the adaptation of tubercles and wing fences is evaluated. Regarding the active flow control techniques, a wide range of morphing technologies is investigated based on performance and integration criteria. Finally, stability studies are conducted for the proposed platform.

Performance Enhancement of Optimized Link State Routing Protocol by Parameter Configuration for UANET

The growing need for wireless communication has resulted in the widespread usage of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in a variety of applications. Designing a routing protocol for UAVs is paramount as well as challenging due to its dynamic attributes. The difficulty stems from features other than mobile ad hoc networks (MANET), such as aerial mobility in 3D space and frequently changing topology. This paper analyzes the performance of four topology-based routing protocols, dynamic source routing (DSR), ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), geographic routing protocol (GRP), and optimized link state routing (OLSR), by using practical simulation software OPNET 14.5. Performance evaluation carries out various metrics such as throughput, delay, and data drop rate. Moreover, the performance of the OLSR routing protocol is enhanced and named “E-OLSR” by tuning parameters and reducing holding time. The optimized E-OLSR settings provide better performance than the conventional request for comments (RFC 3626) in the experiment, making it suitable for use in UAV ad hoc network (UANET) environments. Simulation results indicate the proposed E-OLSR outperforms the existing OLSR and achieves supremacy over other protocols mentioned in this paper.

A New Visual Inertial Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) Algorithm Based on Point and Line Features

In view of traditional point-line feature visual inertial simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) system, which has weak performance in accuracy so that it cannot be processed in real time under the condition of weak indoor texture and light and shade change, this paper proposes an inertial SLAM method based on point-line vision for indoor weak texture and illumination. Firstly, based on Bilateral Filtering, we apply the Speeded Up Robust Features (SURF) point feature extraction and Fast Nearest neighbor (FLANN) algorithms to improve the robustness of point feature extraction result. Secondly, we establish a minimum density threshold and length suppression parameter selection strategy of line feature, and take the geometric constraint line feature matching into consideration to improve the efficiency of processing line feature. And the parameters and biases of visual inertia are initialized based on maximum posterior estimation method. Finally, the simulation experiments are compared with the traditional tightly-coupled monocular visual–inertial odometry using point and line features (PL-VIO) algorithm. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed an inertial SLAM method based on point-line vision for indoor weak texture and illumination can be effectively operated in real time, and its positioning accuracy is 22% higher on average and 40% higher in the scenario that illumination changes and blurred image.

Improving the Model for Person Detection in Aerial Image Sequences Using the Displacement Vector: A Search and Rescue Scenario

Recent results in person detection using deep learning methods applied to aerial images gathered by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have demonstrated the applicability of this approach in scenarios such as Search and Rescue (SAR) operations. In this paper, the continuation of our previous research is presented. The main goal is to further improve detection results, especially in terms of reducing the number of false positive detections and consequently increasing the precision value. We present a new approach that, as input to the multimodel neural network architecture, uses sequences of consecutive images instead of only one static image. Since successive images overlap, the same object of interest needs to be detected in more than one image. The correlation between successive images was calculated, and detected regions in one image were translated to other images based on the displacement vector. The assumption is that an object detected in more than one image has a higher probability of being a true positive detection because it is unlikely that the detection model will find the same false positive detections in multiple images. Based on this information, three different algorithms for rejecting detections and adding detections from one image to other images in the sequence are proposed. All of them achieved precision value about 80% which is increased by almost 20% compared to the current state-of-the-art methods.

Enhanced Attitude and Altitude Estimation for Indoor Autonomous UAVs

In recent years the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) has considerably grown in the civil sectors, due to their high flexibility of use. Currently, two important key points are making them more and more successful in the civil field, namely the decrease of production costs and the increase in navigation accuracy. In this paper, we propose a Kalman filtering-based sensor fusion algorithm, using a low cost navigation platform that contains an inertial measurement unit (IMU), five ultrasonic ranging sensors and an optical flow camera. The aim is to improve navigation in indoor or GPS-denied environments. A multi-rate version of the Extended Kalman Filter is considered to deal with the use of heterogeneous sensors with different sampling rates, and the presence of non-linearities in the model. The effectiveness of the proposed sensor platform is evaluated by means of numerical tests on the dynamic flight simulator of a quadrotor. Results show high precision and robustness of the attitude estimation algorithm, with a reduced computational cost, being ready to be implemented on low-cost platforms.

A Multifractal Analysis and Machine Learning Based Intrusion Detection System with an Application in a UAS/RADAR System

The rapid development of Internet of Things (IoT) technology, together with mobile network technology, has created a never-before-seen world of interconnection, evoking research on how to make it vaster, faster, and safer. To support the ongoing fight against the malicious misuse of networks, in this paper we propose a novel algorithm called AMDES (unmanned aerial system multifractal analysis intrusion detection system) for spoofing attack detection. This novel algorithm is based on both wavelet leader multifractal analysis (WLM) and machine learning (ML) principles. In earlier research on unmanned aerial systems (UAS), intrusion detection systems (IDS) based on multifractal (MF) spectral analysis have been used to provide accurate MF spectrum estimations of network traffic. Such an estimation is then used to detect and characterize flooding anomalies that can be observed in an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) network. However, the previous contributions have lacked the consideration of other types of network intrusions commonly observed in UAS networks, such as the man in the middle attack (MITM). In this work, this promising methodology has been accommodated to detect a spoofing attack within a UAS. This methodology highlights a robust approach in terms of false positive performance in detecting intrusions in a UAS location reporting system.

An Approach to Air-to-Surface Mission Planner on 3D Environments for an Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Recently, interest in mission autonomy related to Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles(UCAVs) for performing highly dangerous Air-to-Surface Missions(ASMs) has been increasing. Regarding autonomous mission planners, studies currently being conducted in this field have been mainly focused on creating a path from a macroscopic 2D environment to a dense target area or proposing a route for intercepting a target. For further improvement, this paper treats a mission planning algorithm on an ASM which can plan the path to the target dense area in consideration of threats spread in a 3D terrain environment while planning the shortest path to intercept multiple targets. To do so, ASMs are considered three sequential mission elements: ingress, intercept, and egress. The ingress and egress elements require a terrain flight path to penetrate deep into the enemy territory. Thus, the proposed terrain flight path planner generates a nap-of-the-earth path to avoid detection by enemy radar while avoiding enemy air defense threats. In the intercept element, the shortest intercept path planner based on the Dubins path concept combined with nonlinear programming is developed to minimize exposure time for survivability. Finally, the integrated ASM planner is applied to several mission scenarios and validated by simulations using a rotorcraft model.

UAV Obstacle Avoidance Algorithm to Navigate in Dynamic Building Environments

In this work, a real-time collision avoidance algorithm was presented for autonomous navigation in the presence of fixed and moving obstacles in building environments. The current implementation is designed for autonomous navigation between waypoints of a predefined flight trajectory that would be performed by an UAV during tasks such as inspections or construction progress monitoring. It uses a simplified geometry generated from a point cloud of the scenario. In addition, it also employs information from 3D sensors to detect and position obstacles such as people or other UAVs, which are not registered in the original cloud. If an obstacle is detected, the algorithm estimates its motion and computes an evasion path considering the geometry of the environment. The method has been successfully tested in different scenarios, offering robust results in all avoidance maneuvers. Execution times were measured, demonstrating that the algorithm is computationally feasible to be implemented onboard an UAV.