The System Algorithm

The system algorithm that drives mission adaptive displays and that represents most of the adaptive display technology is presented in this chapter. We cover the major algorithmic processes, including the triggering conditions that enable the algorithm to achieve optimum performance. Notice that for extreme risk events, very high risk events, and high risk events, algorithmic processes may not be needed. These events may be pre-determined to contain such risk producing properties. Many extreme risk events automatically trigger an escape maneuver. An example of such an escape maneuver activated by an onboard trigger is the detection by the airplane of an engine failure at the approach end of the runway during takeoff while at a terrain critical airport. This then triggers the escape maneuver performance aid. This maneuver must be followed to ensure terrain or obstruction clearance.

Essential Background Material

In order for design teams to design targeted operational systems, they must understand the essential background material: operational visibility, ambiguity challenges associated with risk management, and significantly, approach and landing safety. Operational visibility has guidelines for availability of a precision approach, low visibility, approach lights, and obstacle clearance. Visibility minimums are depicted as limiting factors but are otherwise advisory. Risk management issues need to be addressed with convergent technology applications and performance modeling. They need to be viewed as a cluster of events and identified as low, moderate, and high risks. A risk continuum shows the ranges from no appreciable risk to an imminent substantial negative outcome. Risks in takeoff and approaches were addressed in the Go-Around Safety Forum and in safety improvement strategies relating to the go-around decision making process and execution. Operational decision analytical structure is represented in a go-around decision model.

Mission Critical Events

Mission critical events are changing operational conditions that will have a significant impact on the mission. If they are specified correctly, one can begin to design meaningful crew station responses. This chapter is about how to make decisions that are appropriate for the environment; in this case, under increased time compression. The theoretical focus of decisions shifts the conceptual design of the decision analytic structure forward to the problem definition stage. In large-scale dynamic systems, getting the problem right is often the most difficult task of the operator and operational manager. Operational decision making (ODM) stands in visible contrast to conventional decision making, and conventional decision theory, in that among all classes of decisions, an operational decision is singular, and contains a number of unique components.

Flight Operations

This chapter is a brief overview of some important milestones in the history of aviation. Armed with this knowledge it is hoped that the reader can gain some appreciation of the necessity, and indeed the urgency, of providing additional decision and targeted activity support for flight crews of modern high-speed commercial and military aircraft. It is important to realize that as aviation advanced from simple single-engine aircraft capable of flying not more that about 100 MPH, to advanced, multi-engine aircraft with international capabilities, complexity, and mental workload increased exponentially. This in turn has increased our attention to understanding how to support the flight crew better. This chapter is a brief historical overview, a mission structural representation, and some discussions on flying in adverse conditions.

Mission Performance Aid for Air Combat Operations

This chapter addresses the concepts, methods, apparatus, and tools that were used to establish the operational requirements and system architecture for an advanced mission performance aid (the Smart Cockpit) that targets aerial combat operations. An advanced set of design tools were developed and made available in order for any number of design teams to begin the much needed work in this important area. As the complexity of our modern avionic systems increase, the meaningful definition of operational requirements and corresponding crew station informational representations (display features) early in the design cycle is becoming increasingly important. Topics to be examined include mission decomposition, critical task analysis, information requirements, function allocation, and crew station display features. This material is intended for managers, engineers, human factor professionals, and test and evaluation flight crews facing the important yet challenging task of improving mission performance in an increasingly complex environment.

Flying in Adverse Conditions

Material concerning flying in adverse conditions is presented in this chapter. This is designed to supplement that which has already been presented and provide additional insight into this important topic. When operating in adverse conditions and time constraints, pilots must deal with weather conditions, human limitations, and uncertainty. Adverse conditions make up the bulk of the encounter with mission critical events originating from external sources. Environmentally generated mission critical events, such as adverse wind conditions producing strong crosswinds, are important to consider from an operational safety perspective. Wind shear during approach operations should be carefully evaluated, often requiring the abandonment of the approach in favor of another runway or a diversion.

Case Study Flight #214

This case study describes an approach and landing accident at San Francisco International Airport. The details of the approach are presented so that design teams can view the complete picture instead of focusing in on the apparent point of mission failure, which is not where the total system failure occurred. Also, of interest is the crew resource management (CRM) items that the crew had at the time of the accident. The initial and final approaches are detailed so that design teams can visualize where intervention could be applied to prevent this type of accident from occurring again. With the Smart Cockpit the reader can easily conceptualize where corrective action can be applied early on as a preventative measure.

Operational Decision Making

Additional material on decision making in operational systems is presented here. This material would be most useful for researchers engaged in the conceptual design of onboard decision support systems. Decision making is a complex process. Over the years much has been written about decision theory but very little attention has been paid to decision making under increased time compression. Also, additional complexity is introduced by having to deal with large-scale dynamic systems and their attendant trajectory and energy management demands. We discuss DODAR and FORDEC and their limitations. Operational decision making is a risk-driven model that triggers pilots' responses, actions, and decisions by changing the aircraft's position within the risk envelope. This material can form the basis of a more complete picture of the state-of-the-art decision theory and what useful aspects and insights we can use operationally.

Mission Performance Aids

Flight deck displays that automatically adapt themselves to changing operational conditions are referred to as mission adaptive displays, or smart cockpits. A smart cockpit is an intelligent system possessing advanced reasoning capabilities. Mission Performance Aids are a particular manifestation of Mission Adaptive Displays. Mission Performance Aids fall into three categories: Precision Maneuver Guidance (PMG), Mission Performance Evaluator (MPE), and Operational Decision Making (ODM). The MPE alerts the crew to parameter exceedance. The ODM can calculate a cumulative effect with respect to two or more risk factors being encountered simultaneously. They discern all mission critical events, including escape maneuvers. Currently, this type of performance aid is not available. So this section should prove especially useful for designers of advanced intelligent systems.

Case Study

This is a case study of what has been called the Midway accident, of flight 1248. It is presented here to provide insight into a high workload, high-stress operation and the dangers associated with task overload and situation awareness breakdown. An examination of the decision making process reveals that this could have been aided by the meaningful evaluation of the cumulative effect of multiple mission critical events that were encountered in the course of this operation. Importantly, the full implication of adverse wind conditions coupled with braking action advisories on a short runway should have been made.