Stress

This chapter provides readers with vital knowledge on smoking, including its effects in the human body which in return could lead to positive smoking behavioral change for a leader's own health as well as to caution non-smokers on the danger of exposure to second-hand smoke. Therefore, the chapter will commence with an introduction to smoking where national, continental and global issues related to smoking will be highlighted. The biopsychosocial factors related to smoking include biological factors, psychological factors and social factors. Given that, smoking is a huge cause of death worldwide and the number of deaths caused by smoking-related conditions is believed to have escalated, owing to a lack awareness of the dangers of smoking and poor attitudes towards smoking behaviors that continue to prevail in various populations. This chapter further seeks to provide a better understanding of smoking, including its contributory factors, strategies to be that may be adopted to quit smoking.

Importance of HIV Care Continuum

This chapter seeks to create further awareness and public health education on the importance of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care continuum as one of the key policy focal areas to significantly reduce the HIV epidemic. Specific efforts were directed into the need to implement comprehensive HIV care continuum. The chapter argues that rolling out HIV counseling and testing, enrolled and linked patients to care, prescribing antiretroviral therapy, viral load testing and monitoring are key to achieve viral load suppression. Recommendations and future research direction have put much emphasis on an effort to address psychosocial factors such as stigma, inadequate healthcare facilities, laboratory testing equipment, social and cultural barriers to testing and treatment, to improve access and overall implementation of HIV care continuum.

Mental Health

Global health issues are a global burden and are relatively common in industrialized societies. The World Health Organization and researchers have developed and rebuilt tools to report the burden of disease affecting mortality and health of the people. Apart from America and Europe, which are at an average of global burden for mental health disease, in some regions it is a major priority to be addressed globally. In South East Asia, one of the affected regions is Kashmir, Northern Indian. Disasters have manifested in various forms encompassing the natural calamities of earthquake, flood, landslides and manmade calamities of violence. Trauma due to manmade calamities has taken over as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among the most productive working age group of 12-35 years. The chapter aims to understand the patterns of resilience in people surviving war and conflict in Kashmir over last 60 years. The focus is on the young population of society. Generations in Kashmir have faced the psychosocial impact of ongoing political conflict since the 1980's.

Healthcare System in Namibia

Primary health care is an approach adopted for the delivery of health services to the Namibian population. In terms of this approach, these services are made universally available, accessible, affordable, acceptable, and appropriate to meet the needs of communities. The health care delivery system in Namibia comprises services provided by both the Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) and the private sector. In addition to these services, some people consult traditional health care providers. All in all, health care comprises a combination of promotive, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative services. In addition to government funding, donations and technical support are also provided by non-governmental organisations. The MoHSS health care delivery system is coordinated at national, regional and district levels. This chapter elaborates on the Namibian health care delivery system, the structure and functions of each coordinating level, primary health care services in Namibia, as well as successes and challenges experienced.

IoT Applications to Cure TTH Using Different Biofeedback

The most common type of primitive headache is the tension type headache (TTH). The focus of complete research work was to compare the impression of EMG, GSR and EEG integrated biofeedback on stress due to headache and quality-of-life of the subjects under consideration. EMG biofeedback (BF) and galvanic skin resistance (GSR) are considered effective therapy for headaches. There are no such comparative effects of visual and auditory EMG biofeedback for headaches. Twenty subjects were subjected to EEG therapy. The variables for stress (pain) and SF-36(Quality of life) scores were recorded at starting point, 30 days and 90 days after the starting of GSR and EMG-BF therapy.

Smoking

Smoking involves inhaling, exhaling, holding or otherwise having control over an ignited tobacco product. This practice remains a global budden and deaths caused by smoking-related conditions is believed to have escalated. Many countries in the world have policies in place that regulate the production, transportation, handling and utilization of tobacco products in order to compact this budden of smoking. Despite these effort, various contributing factors of smoking amongst which peer-pressure forms part, are believed to be cause of an increase in the number of new smokers. Nicotine is one of the constituents of tobacco smoke which causes a pleasant feelings which in return contributes to addiction. Cigarette smoke contains thousands of chemicals with some known to be carcinogens. Smoking during pregnancy poses danger to a pregnant mother and her unborn babe as they exchange blood. The public needs to be educated on the danger of smoking, and exposure to second-hand smoke as well as on strategies that one can follow to quit smoking.

Depression

This chapter provides a broad overview of depression in adults. Depression is one of the leading causes of disability globally. It is a syndrome with central features of low mood, lack of enjoyment, reduced energy, negative thinking, poor sleep and appetite, lack of concentration, and suicidal ideation. It affects everyone. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the link between various contributory factors and depression among the adult population. Optimal management processes, including self-care, reduce the risk of relapse and improve the quality of life.

Diabetes

Worldwide diabetes mellitus affects millions of individuals. Diabetes mellitus presents biopsychosocial challenges for diabetic patients and their families. Psychological and sociocultural issues that affect individuals with Type 1 and Type 2 diabetic patients negatively impact self-management activities aimed at attaining metabolic control and prevents future diabetic complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and cerebrovascular diseases. There is increasing evidence that diabetes mellitus is associated with a number of psychological and psychiatric conditions. This review addresses the distinctive biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors such as social support, socioeconomic status and family interaction encountered by diabetic patients. Recommendations are provided that can enhance diabetic care and include improving current screening of psychological conditions as well as treatment practices. There is also the need for more support from family, friends and medical staff in addressing sociocultural issues that impede favorable diabetes management.

Elderly Grandparents as Caregivers of Children Affected or Infected by HIV and AIDS in Namibia

Kinship care is one of the most prevalent forms of placement that is used for children affected and/or infected by HIV and AIDS in Namibia. However, the literature lacks a systematic theory-informed understanding with respect to what is currently known about caregivers generally and specifically, elderly caregivers of orphans, and vulnerable children (OVC) in sub-Saharan Africa. This foundational chapter attempts to provide readers with content to assist in their understanding of the characteristics, role, and experiences of kinship elderly caregivers of children affected and/or infected by HIV and AIDS. In addition, the chapter highlights what is known about children living with HIV in Namibia. Finally, the chapter offers suggestions for policy and practice.

Stress and Trauma

Toxic stress and trauma are common occurrences that can create physiological and psychological changes with negative short- and long-term effects. Research has clearly established a correlation between adversity and negative outcomes. However, there are a number of factors involved in the development, intensity, and severity of outcomes, specifically the type of stress or trauma experiences, temperament, personality type, repertoire of coping skills, and level of resiliency. This chapter reviews the definitions of different types of stress, the neurological changes that can occur as a result of adversity, common and paradoxical reactions to trauma, and the ability of coping skills and resilience to change the trajectory from negative outcomes to opportunities for positive growth.