Ethnographic Research

This chapter considers some of the essential features of ethnography as a qualitative method. The main theoretical foundations of ethnographic approach are explained; however, the emphasis is mainly on how ethnography is done. Thus, the techniques for collecting data used by ethnographers take the central part of this chapter with some special attention to the methodology of observation. Through many examples, the authors describe the various forms of observation as a social research method. It is useful to illustrate the approach of the ethnographer through the metaphor of the “stranger” because “reflexivity” is an important part of the qualitative approach of ethnography. The practicalities of recording the field research and writing memos are fully considered in conjunction with practical suggestions and conceptual discussion, including the writing up of the final text which should be the conclusion of a consequential process, rather than a separate entity.

Interpretive Research

This chapter examines the philosophical standpoints of interpretive research contrasted with positivist approaches. The interpretive approach, also known as constructionist philosophy, emerged among other qualitative methodologies as a challenge to positivists' empiricist approaches to conducting research. The interpretive researchers advance a view that all data needs interpretation and that the researcher assesses and interprets data to establish meanings and understanding. Whereas a positivist researcher would normally seek to control the subjects, the research environment and the related variables, in the interpretive paradigm, the participants are not treated as subjects by the researcher, but as helpers in the construction of meanings under a more equal relationship.

Positivist Philosophy

This chapter introduces the reader to positivist philosophy which underpins much of quantitative methodology and designs in research. The chapter is divided into five sections. The first section discusses the origin of scientific research and the rejection of metaphysics in research. The second section describes the key tenets of positivist philosophy while the third section distinguishes positivist philosophy from other research paradigms. The gaps in positivist philosophy and the paradigm war that led to the emergence of interpretive and pragmatist philosophies are highlighted in detail. The characteristics of interpretivist and pragmatist philosophies are partly discussed in sections four and five.

Research Report Writing

This chapter discusses the critical aspects necessary to produce a research report from a study undertaken. Since research is based on a systematic endeavour which seeks to establish valid findings, the chapter addresses notions of criticality that ought to be espoused by the inquirer and the need to present findings being mindful of the demands related to academic writing. Furthermore, the chapter outlines the structures and steps that are necessary to produce a good enough proposal, ethical issues, gaining consent and ultimately how to produce a dissertation report at the end of all research activities and data analysis. It is noted in this chapter that a good proposal is most likely to end as a plausible research output. An informative study need not be diminished by a lack of academic writing skills, poor organisation, and unethical conduct.

Qualitative Data Analysis

This chapter illustrates how to do qualitative data analysis. The principles of grounded theory methodology are taken as the main reference for developing a rigorous analysis of the data. Several examples and case studies are discussed to show the practicalities of qualitative data analysis. While explaining the mechanisms of qualitative data analysis, this chapter frames data analysis as part of the overall research process. Methods used in qualitative research give access to people's stories and experiences through language and captures the complexities of social processes. Grounded theory methodology is used to illustrate an approach to coding. Coding is about finding key themes in qualitative data in the form of a text and developing explanations of the research questions. Several approaches to coding—from open and axial coding to selective coding—are systematically presented. Issues of validity and reliability of qualitative data are also addressed within the overall process of research and data analysis leading to the writing-up.

Quantitative Data Analysis

This chapter discusses the analysis of data in quantitative research and the most common strategies to follow. Undergraduate students in most programmes may not necessarily need to use advanced statistical analysis. This chapter takes the readers through parametric and non-parametric tests. Readers will be able to grasp measurement tests that are appropriate for several quantitative data analysis in research projects. The differences between parametric and non-parametric tests are examined and explored in some detail. The assumptions for parametric and non-parametric measures are also highlighted and relevant examples provided and should enable the reader to select appropriate measures for their research projects.

Quantitative Methods in Research

This chapter discusses data collection methods and strategies in quantitative research and how researchers design their studies following quantitative approaches. The chapter consists of four sections. The first section discusses experimental and non-experimental designs for quantitative research and the steps that are taken to achieve a more effective inquiry and valid findings. The second and third sections of the chapter discuss the quantitative data collection methods and sampling procedures of quantitative projects, respectively. The chapter is then concluded by examining the significance of reliability and validity concepts in quantitative projects. The chapter has also provided relevant examples and critical thinking challenges for enhanced understanding.

Qualitative Methods in Research

This chapter discusses various methods and approaches to data collection under the qualitative methodology framework, noting that these methods provide rigour and depth understanding in an inquiry. Though the chapter touches on traditional qualitative methods such as the interview and observations, it focused more on examining alternative and non-traditional qualitative methods in data collection, such as the bricolage and distance researching. The chapter further identified other strategies such as sampling, triangulation and ethical considerations that may be relevant to a qualitative study. The chapter helps the reader to reach a broad-based understanding as to the location of qualitative research and the methodological demands necessary to apprehend complex social worlds of studied participants.

Critical Theory in Research

Based on critical theory, this chapter focuses on the first generation of Frankfurt School (mainly to authors such as T.W. Adorno, M. Horkheimer, and W. Benjamin). For discussing methodology in research, these authors are considered more representative than the younger generation (e.g., Habermas and Honneth) mainly because of the renewed interest in the direct critique of society and because of the failure of the younger generation to produce empirical research. The proponents of critical theory establish connections between theory and practice, in the sense that the social content of research must have human dignity at its centre. The difference between method-led and content-led research is discussed and considered central for this kind of approach to empirical research. Feminist research methodologies and critical race methodology are considered as closely associated with critical theory. These different approaches have developed autonomously from critical theory and are not directly related to it. However, feminist research methodologies and critical race methodology are expounded here because of their similarities to the critical theory of the Frankfurt School aimed at providing an emancipatory approach to empirical research.

Ethical Issues and Values in Research

This chapter introduces the reader to ethical issues related to most research approaches in social science and education and provides an in-depth background and rationale for adhering to ethics in research practice. It fosters an appreciation of ethical strategies in undertaking research involving both humans and non-humans, but particularly the need for respecting human dignity. The stages of intellectual property in research are highlighted with a view to conscientise the reader on the need to respect and acknowledge other people's work. The conflict between positivists and social constructionists, which arises due to differences between subjectivity and objectivity is also noted and explored, leading to an examination of what values may mean in a research inquiry.