scholarly journals Out of our skull, in our skin: the Microbiota-Gut-Brain axis and the Extended Cognition Thesis

2021 ◽  
Vol 36 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Federico Boem ◽  
Gabriele Ferretti ◽  
Silvano Zipoli Caiani
Keyword(s):  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Philosophy Of Mind ◽  
Extended Cognition ◽  
The Body ◽  
Cognitive System ◽  
Lively Debate ◽  
Functional Extension ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Multiple Interactions

AbstractAccording to a shared functionalist view in philosophy of mind, a cognitive system, and cognitive function thereof, is based on the components of the organism it is realized by which, indeed, play a causal role in regulating our cognitive processes. This led philosophers to suggest also that, thus, cognition could be seen as an extended process, whose vehicle can extend not only outside the brain but also beyond bodily boundaries, on different kinds of devices. This is what we call the ‘Externally Extended Cognition Thesis.’ This notion has generated a lively debate. Here, we offer a novel notion of extended cognition, according to which cognition can be seen as being realized (and expanded) outside the brain, but still inside the body. This is what we call the ‘Internally Extended Cognition Thesis’. Not only our thesis but also our approach while defending it is innovative. The argument we offer is supported by recent empirical findings in the life sciences and biomedicine, which suggest that the gut microbiota’s activity has a functional role in regulating our cognitive processes and behaviors. In doing so, we embrace the holobiont-perspective, according to which it is possible to claim that what we call biological individuals are not autonomous entities with clear boundaries, but should rather be seen as networks of multiple interactions among species. Thus, by analyzing different sets of evidence in light of the holobiont-perspective, we argue that the gut microbiota could be seen as a component of our organism. On the basis of the philosophical interpretation of this evidence, however, we also suggest that there are no impediments standing the way of considering the gut microbiota also as a functional extension of our cognitive system. If so, this amounts to extending cognition out of ‘our skull’, though still confining it within ‘our body’: to ‘our gut’. This is an instance of the ‘Internally Extended Cognition Thesis,’ whose benefits for an original (biologically informed) theory of extended cognition are discussed.

scholarly journals Interplay of Good Bacteria and Central Nervous System: Cognitive Aspects and Mechanistic Considerations

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mahmoud Salami
Keyword(s):  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Cognitive Processing ◽  
Clinical Problem ◽  
The Body ◽  
Brain Diseases ◽  
Normal Brain ◽  
Beneficial Effects ◽  
Normal Brain Function ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Common Clinical Problem

The human gastrointestinal tract hosts trillions of microorganisms that is called “gut microbiota.” The gut microbiota is involved in a wide variety of physiological features and functions of the body. Thus, it is not surprising that any damage to the gut microbiota is associated with disorders in different body systems. Probiotics, defined as living microorganisms with health benefits for the host, can support or restore the composition of the gut microbiota. Numerous investigations have proved a relationship between the gut microbiota with normal brain function as well as many brain diseases, in which cognitive dysfunction is a common clinical problem. On the other hand, increasing evidence suggests that the existence of a healthy gut microbiota is crucial for normal cognitive processing. In this regard, interplay of the gut microbiota and cognition has been under focus of recent researches. In the present paper, I review findings of the studies considering beneficial effects of either gut microbiota or probiotic bacteria on the brain cognitive function in the healthy and disease statuses.

Extended Cognition and The Innovation Process

2021 ◽  
pp. 144-168
Author(s):  
Antonio Mastrogiorgio ◽  
Enrico Petracca ◽  
Riccardo Palumbo
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Procedural Knowledge ◽  
Innovation Process ◽  
Extended Cognition ◽  
Physical World ◽  
Current State ◽  
The World ◽  
Behavioural Factors ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Innovation Processes

Innovations advance into the ‘adjacent possible’, enabled and constrained by the current state of the world, in a way that is unpredictable and not law-entailed. Unpredictability is the hallmark of the idea that innovation processes are contingent and embodied in the interaction between individuals and artefacts in the environment. In this chapter, we explore the cognitive and behavioural factors involved in exaptive innovation processes by using the notion of ‘extended cognition’. Extended cognition builds on the hypothesis that cognitive processes are not limited to the brain but also extend into the physical world as the objects of the environment facilitate, integrate with, and even constitute specific cognitive processes. We argue that exaptive innovations can be better understood by focusing on practicality and procedural knowledge from an extended cognition perspective. Artefact manipulation is not merely pragmatic but also epistemic as it enables specific reasoning processes that lead to the discovery of new uses.

scholarly journals Is Having Your Computer Compromised a Personal Assault? The Ethics of Extended Cognition

2016 ◽  
Vol 2 (4) ◽  
pp. 542-560 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. ADAM CARTER ◽  
S. ORESTIS PALERMOS
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Science ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Philosophy Of Mind ◽  
Extended Cognition ◽  
Critical Discussion ◽  
Legal Cases

ABSTRACT:Philosophy of mind and cognitive science (e.g., Clark and Chalmers 1998; Clark 2010; Palermos 2014) have recently become increasingly receptive to the hypothesis of extended cognition, according to which external artifacts such as our laptops and smartphones can—under appropriate circumstances—feature as material realizers of a person's cognitive processes. We argue that, to the extent that the hypothesis of extended cognition is correct, our legal and ethical theorizing and practice must be updated by broadening our conception of personal assault so as to include intentional harm toward gadgets that have been appropriately integrated. We next situate the theoretical case for extended personal assault within the context of some recent ethical and legal cases and close with critical discussion.

scholarly journals Pulverizing the Monopoly of Mind: Three Roles of the Body in Cognition

2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 19-29
Author(s):  
Akhil Kumar Singh
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Cognitive Process ◽  
The Body ◽  
Central Position ◽  
Computational Process ◽  
Internal Representations ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Basic Level ◽  
The Doors

For many decades, cognition has been viewed as a computational process in the brain. For cognition, the brain, body and the interaction with the environment are important. Conventional views are inclined towards the existence of discrete and internal representations realised by highly specific mechanisms in the brain. The Embodied approach challenges this view and accepts the evolution of cognitive abilities.  There is a shift in focus from the belief that the brain is solely responsible for cognition to the thought that the body is somehow deeply integrated into cognition. However, it does not deny the central position of the brain in the process of cognition but opens the doors for other factors for integration. At the basic level, there are three ways in which an agent’s body can be utilised for the cognitive process. An agent’s body may help to generate, operate and distribute the cognitive processes. As a result, this approach tries to diminish the monopoly of the brain by taking into account the importance of the body and the environment for cognition.

scholarly journals The inner experience of time

2009 ◽  
Vol 364 (1525) ◽  
pp. 1955-1967 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marc Wittmann
Keyword(s):  
Time Perception ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Insular Cortex ◽  
The Body ◽  
Viewing Time ◽  
Time Interval ◽  
Neurophysiological Mechanism ◽  
Experience Of Time ◽  
Recent Developments ◽  
The Brain

The striking diversity of psychological and neurophysiological models of ‘time perception’ characterizes the debate on how and where in the brain time is processed. In this review, the most prominent models of time perception will be critically discussed. Some of the variation across the proposed models will be explained, namely (i) different processes and regions of the brain are involved depending on the length of the processed time interval, and (ii) different cognitive processes may be involved that are not necessarily part of a core timekeeping system but, nevertheless, influence the experience of time. These cognitive processes are distributed over the brain and are difficult to discern from timing mechanisms. Recent developments in the research on emotional influences on time perception, which succeed decades of studies on the cognition of temporal processing, will be highlighted. Empirical findings on the relationship between affect and time, together with recent conceptualizations of self- and body processes, are integrated by viewing time perception as entailing emotional and interoceptive (within the body) states. To date, specific neurophysiological mechanisms that would account for the representation of human time have not been identified. It will be argued that neural processes in the insular cortex that are related to body signals and feeling states might constitute such a neurophysiological mechanism for the encoding of duration.

Cartesian Robotics

2013 ◽  
Vol 124 (1) ◽  
pp. 43-68 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Bates
Keyword(s):  
Information Processing ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Processing System ◽  
The Body ◽  
Human Organism ◽  
Information Processing System ◽  
Mind And Body ◽  
New Interpretation ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Physiological Theory

This essay looks closely at René Descartes’s physiological theory, and especially his theorization of the nerves and the brain as an information-processing system, in order to offer a new interpretation of cognition within his philosophy. Rather than opposing mind and body, Descartes showed how the operations of the soul interrupted the automatic cognitive processes of the body to provide adaptive flexibility for the human organism as a whole.

scholarly journals THE PROBLEM OF BOUNDARIES OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF MIND

2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 14-24
Author(s):  
Alexandra Pronkina
Keyword(s):  
Modern Philosophy ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Philosophy Of Mind ◽  
Extended Mind ◽  
Mental States ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
External Resources ◽  
Andy Clark ◽  
Controversial Problem ◽  
The Brain

The article deals with a controversial problem of the philosophy of mind, known as the problem of cognitive boundaries. This problem is illustrated by the polemic between two actively debating philosophical positions – internalism, according to which mental states are localized in the brain, and externalism, which assumes that cognitive acts are not limited to our body. The author analyzes Andy Clark and David Chalmers’s theory of extended cognitive processes and the extended mind, which is fundamentally new for the modern philosophy of mind and has taken on relevance today. It is shown that this concept is based on the idea of subject’s activity, which has its roots in James Gibson’s “ecological psychology”, Francisco Varela’s idea of “embodied cognition” and Alva Noë’s theory of sensorimotor enactivism. The author comes to the conclusion that the theory of extended cognitive processes has a number of deficiencies, one of which is the dependence on external resources and tools. David Chalmers’s thesis that we should not try to neutralize the negative effects of such dependency, but rather try to adapt our practices to the changing ways of thinking is seen as the way out of this problem.

scholarly journals Gut Microbiota: Critical Controller and Intervention Target in Brain Aging and Cognitive Impairment

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hui Li ◽  
Junjun Ni ◽  
Hong Qing
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Impairment ◽  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Healthy Aging ◽  
Brain Aging ◽  
Current Trend ◽  
The Body ◽  
Dietary Interventions ◽  
Age Related ◽  
Functional Features ◽  
The Brain

The current trend for the rapid growth of the global aging population poses substantial challenges for society. The human aging process has been demonstrated to be closely associated with changes in gut microbiota composition, diversity, and functional features. During the first 2 years of life, the gut microbiota undergoes dramatic changes in composition and metabolic functions as it colonizes and develops in the body. Although the gut microbiota is nearly established by the age of three, it continues to mature until adulthood, when it comprises more stable and diverse microbial species. Meanwhile, as the physiological functions of the human body deteriorated with age, which may be a result of immunosenescence and “inflammaging,” the guts of elderly people are generally characterized by an enrichment of pro-inflammatory microbes and a reduced abundance of beneficial species. The gut microbiota affects the development of the brain through a bidirectional communication system, called the brain-gut-microbiota (BGM) axis, and dysregulation of this communication is pivotal in aging-related cognitive impairment. Microbiota-targeted dietary interventions and the intake of probiotics/prebiotics can increase the abundance of beneficial species, boost host immunity, and prevent gut-related diseases. This review summarizes the age-related changes in the human gut microbiota based on recent research developments. Understanding these changes will likely facilitate the design of novel therapeutic strategies to achieve healthy aging.

scholarly journals The Ameliorative Effects of Isorhynchophylline on Morphine Dependence Are Mediated Through the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhu Chen ◽  
Chen Zhijie ◽  
Zhou Yuting ◽  
Li Chan ◽  
Xiao Shilin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Intestinal Flora ◽  
Public Health Problem ◽  
The Body ◽  
Morphine Dependence ◽  
Antibiotic Administration ◽  
Global Public Health ◽  
Bv2 Cells ◽  
Morphine Addiction ◽  
The Brain

Morphine abuse is a global public health problem. Increasing evidence has shown that gut microbiota dysbiosis plays an important role in several central nervous system diseases. However, whether there is an association between gut microbiota and morphine dependence remains unclear. In this study, the effects of isorhynchophylline on morphine dependence were evaluated based on the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA). The results showed that isorhynchophylline could reverse the changes in alpha and beta diversity, composition, and richness of the intestinal flora occurring in morphine-dependent zebrafish, as well as the morphine-induced changes in the expression of MGBA-related genes in BV2 cells and the brain and intestine of zebrafish. Based on the results, we then used antibiotics to evaluate whether disrupting the gut microbiota would affect morphine addiction in zebrafish. The results showed that the antibiotic-induced intestinal floral imbalance changed the behavior of morphine-dependent zebrafish, the characteristics of the zebrafish intestinal flora, and the expression of MGBA-related genes in the zebrafish brain and intestine. Importantly, we also show that, following antibiotic administration, the ameliorative effects of isorhynchophylline on morphine addiction were lost. Together, our results indicate that the gut microbiota interacts with the brain, and dysbiosis of the intestinal flora may affect the efficacy of isorhynchophylline in the body. Our findings provide a novel framework for understanding the mechanisms of morphine addiction through the MGBA and may provide new therapeutic strategies for the use of Chinese medicines in the prevention of drug addiction.

scholarly journals Rhythms of the Body, Rhythms of the Brain: Respiration, Neural Oscillations, and Embodied Cognition

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Somogy Varga ◽  
Detlef H. Heck
Keyword(s):  
Embodied Cognition ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Cognitive Activity ◽  
The Body ◽  
General Mechanism ◽  
Rhythmic Contraction ◽  
Contraction And Relaxation ◽  
Epistemic Role ◽  
The Brain

AbstractIn spite of its importance as a life-defining rhythmic movement and its constant rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the body, respiration has not received attention in Embodied Cognition (EC) literature. Our paper aims to show that (1) respiration exerts significant and unexpected bottom-up influence on cognitive processes, and (2) it does so by modulating neural synchronization that underlies specific cognitive processes. Then, (3) we suggest that the particular example of respiration may function as a model for a general mechanism through which the body influences cognitive functioning. Finally, (4) we work out the implications for embodied cognition, draw a parallel to the role of gesture, and argue that respiration sometimes plays a double, pragmatic and epistemic, role, which reduces the cognitive load. In such cases, consistent with EC, the overall cognitive activity includes a loop-like interaction between neural and non-neural elements. (141 words)

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