scholarly journals Changes in socio-economic inequality in nutritional status among children in EAG states, India

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-34
Author(s):  
Rajeev Kumar ◽  
Balram Paswan
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Socioeconomic Inequality ◽  
Wealth Index ◽  
Household Wealth ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Mother’S Education ◽  
Eag States ◽  
Mother's Education

Abstract Objective The primary purpose of this study is to examine changes in socioeconomic inequality in nutritional status (stunting and underweight) among children in Empowered Action Group (EAG) states. Design The study is based on the most recent two wave’s cross-sectional data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted in 2005-06 (NFHS-3) and 2015-16 (NFHS-4). The study used height-for-age (stunting) and weight-for-age (underweight) of children as anthropometric indicators. Setting EAG states including Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh in India Participants The study includes a total of 11858 (NFHS-3) and 92630 (NFHS-4) children under five years Result The socioeconomic inequality in stunting remained unchanged in all EAG states. At the same time, the inequality in underweight decreased during 2005-2016. On decomposing, the factors contributing to socioeconomic inequality revealed that household wealth index, mother’s education, and mother’s nutritional status were the largest contributors to stunting (47%, 24%, and 8%) and underweight (51%, 21%, and 16%) respectively in 2015-16. Conclusion The study concluded the socioeconomic inequality in underweight among children under five years increased over the years in EAG states in India. Altogether, household wealth index, mother’s education, and mother’s nutritional status contributed to nearly 80% to inequality in stunting and 90% to inequality in underweight in 2015-16. Hence, efforts should be made to minimize the socioeconomic inequality in the nutritional status of children, particularly in EAG states in India.

scholarly journals Socioeconomic and Demographic Determinants of Body Mass Index in Sudan: A Predictive Model

2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (1) ◽  
pp. 478-483
Author(s):  
Ahmed Abdallah ◽  
Mohammed Mohammed ◽  
Dawit Ayele
Keyword(s):  
Body Mass Index ◽  
Body Mass ◽  
Multinomial Logistic Regression ◽  
Wealth Index ◽  
Normal Weight ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Body Mass Index Status ◽  
Mother’S Education ◽  
Mother's Education

Background: This paper aimed to determine the socioeconomic and demographic determinants related to Body Mass Index (BMI) for children under five years in Sudan. The objective of the study was to identify the factors of BMI for under-five children. Methods: This study used the Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) conducted in the year 2014. The multinomial logistic regression model was adopted. Results: Results revealed that the prevalence of underweight infants under five years was 86.3% in females and 85.3% in males, while the proportion of the normal weight of infants under five years of age for males was slightly higher than females; there was a correlation amid geographic determinants, state, and BMI status. Also, there was a significant association between the mother’s education and body mass index status and the wealth index and body mass index status. The variables place of residence and sex did not show a statistically significant relationship with body mass index status for children under five years of age in Sudan. Conclusion: The risk factors significantly associated with body mass were the state, whether the child had ever been breastfed, sex, mother’s education, wealth index, and age in the month.

scholarly journals ANALYSIS OF MATERNAL AGE AT MARRIED, NUMBER OF CHILDREN, HISTORY OF BREASTFEEDING, MOTHER'S EDUCATION AND HIGH RISK OF PREGNANCY WITH INCIDENCE OF STUNTING IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE-YEARS

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 21-30
Author(s):  
Eka Sri Purwandari ◽  
Qorinah Estiningtyas Sakilah Adnani ◽  
Reni Yuli Astutik
Keyword(s):  
Logistic Regression ◽  
Maternal Education ◽  
World Health ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Number Of Children ◽  
Mother’S Education ◽  
History Of ◽  
Mother's Education

Background: Stunting among children is a problem that has received serious attention from the Indonesian government. Incidence of stunting has decreased from year to year, but the decline still does not meet the World Health Organization (WHO) target. Stunting occurs as a result of chronic malnutrition, especially during the first 1000 days of birth as a vital phase. Chronic nutritional deficiency as a toddler can be caused by various factors, including exclusive breastfeeding, the number of children that must be borne by the family and mother's education. Purpose: This study aimed to analyse the age of the women at marriage, the number of children, mother’s education, history of breastfeeding and pregnancy risk with the incidence of stunting in children under five years.. Methods: The design of this study was analytic with a cross-sectional approach. This research was conducted on toddlers aged 13-60 months in a village of East Java Province, Indonesia, with a sample size of 110 children under five. The statistical test used logistic regression with a confidence level of 95%. Results: Data analysis using logistic regression reveal the relationship between the dependent variable and the incidence of toddler stunting, the following results were obtained: from the mother's age at marriage, the value of ? 0.286, the number of family members ? 0.587, mother's education, ? 0.002, history of breastfeeding, ? 0.884, risk of pregnancy ? 0.696. of the five factors associated with the incidence of under-five stunting in this study, it shows that only mother's education has a very significant relationship with the incidence of under-five stunting (? = 0.002 <? = 0.05). The OR value is 4.724, which means that mothers with primary education have a risk of 4.724 times in the incidence of child stunting. Conclusion: The lower the mother's education provides an opportunity for the incidence of toddler stunting. Maternal education is related to the ability to receive information related to nutrition and child development so that it also has an impact on the preparation of family nutrition. In the long term, improper nutrition can lead to stunting.

scholarly journals A Predictive Model and Socioeconomic and Demographic Determinants of Body Mass Index in Sudan

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ahmed Abdallah ◽  
Mohammed Mohammed ◽  
Dawit Ayele
Keyword(s):  
Body Mass Index ◽  
Body Mass ◽  
Multinomial Logistic Regression ◽  
Wealth Index ◽  
Normal Weight ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Body Mass Index Status ◽  
Mother’S Education ◽  
Mother's Education

Abstract This paper aims at determining the socioeconomic and demographic determinants related to Body Mass Index (BMI) for children under-five years in Sudan. This study uses the Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) conducted in the year 2014. The survey was conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics in cooperation with several national institutions. The objective of the study is to identify the factors of BMI for under-five children. The multinomial logistic regression model was adopted. Results revealed that the prevalence of underweight for infant’s under-five years was 86.3% for females and 85.3% for males, the proportion of the normal weight of infants under-five years of age for males is slightly higher than that of females; there is correlation amid geographic determinants; state, and BMI status. Also, there was a significant association between mother’s education and body mass index status and the wealth index and body mass index status. The variables place of residence and sex did not show a statistically significant relationship with body mass index status for the children under-five years of age in Sudan. In addition, the risk factors significantly associated with body mass were the state, child ever breastfeeds, sex, mother’s education, wealth index, and age in the month.

scholarly journals Nutritional Status of Dalit Children: A Comparative Study with Non-Dalit Children in Eastern Terai of Nepal

2017 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 117-126
Author(s):  
Tara Kumari Kafle ◽  
GP Singh ◽  
SP Singh ◽  
TK Kafle
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Under Five Children ◽  
Number Of Children ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Poor Nutritional Status ◽  
Mother’S Education ◽  
Mother's Education

IntroductionThe poor nutritional status of under five children has been considered a serious problem in Nepal for many years. Children need adequate nutrition for their proper physical, emotional as well as psychological development.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to assess and compare the nutritional status of under five children and explore its socio demographic determinants.MethodologyAn analytical cross-sectional study was conducted in Eastern Terai, ecological belt of Nepal. Predesigned, pretested interview schedule was used to collect the information. Information was collected from 720 Dalit as well as Non-dalit mothers about their youngest children. The nutritional status was measured byusing anthropometric measurements.  ResultsIn bi-variate analysis the significant difference were observed among children's nutritional status between castes as well as a number of socio-demographic variables however in multivariate analysis only caste, number of Children Ever Born (CEB) and mother's education were found significant determinants of height for age, mother's education was found significant determinant for weight for height and caste, age of children and mother's education were found significant determinants of weight for age of children.ConclusionDalit children were found much more malnourished than Nondalit. The castes, age of child, CEB to mother and mothers' education were found as the determinants of nutritional status among under-five children.Birat Journal of Health Sciences Vol.2/No.1/Issue 2/ Jan - April 2017, Page: 117-126

scholarly journals Hubungan Penerapan Perilaku Kadarzi (Keluarga Sadar Gizi) dengan Status Gizi Balita di Kabupaten Tulungagung

2017 ◽  
Vol 1 (4) ◽  
pp. 379
Author(s):  
Santik Wijayanti ◽  
Triska Susila Nindya
Keyword(s):  
Vitamin A ◽  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Vitamin A Deficiency ◽  
Fisher Exact Test ◽  
Height Measurement ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Exact Test ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Nutritional Status Of Children

 Background: Family conscious nutrition (Kadarzi) is an Indonesia government program that aims to address the nutrition problem. The family expected to be able to independently giving the best nutrition to improve health. Each Kadarzi indicator has an important role to resolve and prevent the occurrence of utrition problem as indicator of vitamin A supplementation is used to resolve vitamin A deficiency.  Nutrition problems can be seen by using nutritional status. Children under five years are age-prone to experiencenutritional problem such as underweight, stunting, and wasting. Objective: The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between the application of Kadarzi behavior with the nutritional status of children under five (WAZ, HAZ, and WHZ). Method: The research was an analytic obsevation research, using cross sectional design. The sample consist of 72 toddlers in Salakkembang Village, Kalidawir Subdistrict, Tulungagung Regency. The data were collected by using weight and height measurement, also Kadarzi bahavior questionnaire. The data were analyzed using Fisher Exact test. Result: The results of the study showed that there was a correlation between Kadarzi behavior with nutitional status of toddlers based on WAZ (p=0.010), and HAZ (p=0.000) but not with WHZ (p=0.368). Conclusion: The better apllication of Kadarzi behavior, the better the nutritional status of toddlers WAZ and HAZ. Mothers should apply Kadarzi behavior to prevent toddlers from nutritional problems. ABSTRAK Latar belakang: Keluarga Sadar Gizi (Kadarzi) merupakan program pemerintah Indonesia yang bertujuan mengatasi masalah gizi. Keluarga diharapkan dapat secara mandiri mewujudkan keadaan gizi yang sebaik-baiknya untuk meningkatkan kesehatan. Setiap indikator Kadarzi memiliki peran penting untuk mengatasi dan mencegah terjadinya masalah gizi seperti indikator pemberian suplemen vitamin A digunakan untuk mengatasi kekurangan vitamin A. Masalah gizi dapat dilihat salah satunya dengan menggunakan status gizi. Balita merupakan usia yang rawan mengalami masalah gizi seperti underweight, stunting, dan wasting.Tujuan: Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah menganalisis hubungan antara penerapan perilaku Kadarzi dengan status gizi balita (BB/U, TB/U, dan BB/TB).Metode: Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian observasinol analitik, dengan desain penelitian cross sectional. Sampel terdiri dari 72 balita di Desa Salakkembang, Kecamatan Kalidawir, Kabupaten Tulungagung. Pengumpulan data menggunakan penimbangan berat badan, tinggi badan, dan kuesioner perilaku Kadarzi. Data dianalisis menggunakan Fisher Exact test. Hasil: Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan terhadap hubungan antara perilaku Kadarzi dengan status gizi balita BB/U (p=0,010) dan TB/U (p=0,000) namun tidak dengan BB/TB (p=0,368).Kesimpulan: Semakin baik penerapan perilaku Kadarzi maka semakin baik status gizi balita BB/U dan TB/U. Ibu dan seluruh anggota keluarga seharusnya menerapkan perilaku Kadarzi agar balita terhindar dari masalah gizi.

scholarly journals Efektivitas Pemberian Makanan Tambahan (PMT) Pemulihan Pada Status Gizi Balita di Wilayah Kerja Puskesmas Simomulyo, Surabaya

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 58
Author(s):  
Arum Sekar Rahayuning Putri ◽  
Trias Mahmudiono
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Health Center ◽  
Supplemental Feeding ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Significance Level ◽  
Supplementary Food ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Nutritional Status Of Children

Background: One of the efforts made in overcoming malnutrition in the toddler age group is by implementing a Recovery Supplementary Feeding program.Objectives: The purpose of this study was to analyze the differences in nutritional status of children based on weight for height before and after the Supplementary Food Recovery and differences in nutritional status of children after Supplementary Food Recovery and when they had not received Supplementary Food Recovery in the Simomulyo Community Health Center work area.Methods: This study was observational study using case-control design. A total of 38 toddlers with history of obtaining Supplemental Feeding Recovery (PMT) Program in the working area of Simomulyo Health Center were randomly selected. Nutritional status of toddlers is obtained using anthropometric methods of body weight and height / body length. Statistically tested using t-test paired with a significance level of <0.05.Results: After not getting Supplemental Feeding Recovery, it was found that 2.6% of children under five severely wasting, 34.2% wasting, and 63.2% had normal nutritional status. There was a decrease in the percentage of infants with normal nutritional status compared to after completing PMT Recovery program from 68.4% to 63.2%. There were no significant differences in nutritional status of children before and after the program (p=0.585). There was no difference between the nutritional status of children under five after the program and when they had not received the program (p=0.430)Conclusions: There was no difference in nutritional status of children (weight-for-height) before and after Supplemental Feeding Recovery Program.ABSTRAK  Latar Belakang: Upaya yang dilakukan dalam mengatasi kekurangan gizi pada kelompok usia balita adalah program Pemberian Makanan Tambahan (PMT) Pemulihan.Tujuan: Penelitian ini dilakukan bertujuan untuk menganalisis adanya perbedaan pada status gizi balita berasarkan BB/TB sebelum dan setelah Pemberian Makanan Tambahan (PMT) Pemulihan serta perbedaan status gizi balita setelah PMT Pemulihan dan saat sudah tidak mendapat PMT Pemulihan di wilayah kerja Puskesmas Simomulyo.Metode: Penelitian ini adalah peneitian observasional dengan desain penelitan cross sectional. Lokasi penelitian adalah di wilayah kerja Puskemas Simomulyo, Surabaya. Sebanyak 38 balita dengan riwayat mendapat PMT Pemulihan dipilih secara acak menggunakan metode simple random sampling. Status gizi balita didapat menggunakan metode antropometri berat badan dan tinggi/panjang badan. Indeks BB/TB digunakan dalam penilaian status gizi dengan alasan sasaran utama PMT Pemulihan adalah balita dengan status gizi kurus.  Uji secara statistik dilakukan menggunakan uji t berpasangan dengan tingkat signifikansi <0,05.Hasil: Setelah 3 bulan mendapat PMT Pemulihan ada peningkatan persentase balita dengan status gizi normal dari 65,8% menjadi 68,4%. Setelah tidak mendapat PMT Pemulihan ada penurunan persentase balita dengan status gizi normal menjadi 63,2%. Tidak ada perbedaan yang bermakna status gizi balita berasarkan BB/TB sebelum dan setelah PMT Pemulihan (p=0,585). Tidak ada perbedaan pada status gizi dapat disebabkan oleh konsumsi PMT yang belum optimal. Begitu juga diketahui tidak ada perbedaan yang bermakana status gizi balita setelah PMT Pemulihan dan saat sudah tidak mendapat PMT Pemulihan (p=0,430).Kesimpulan: Tidak ada perbedaan pada status gizi balita dengan indeks antropometri BB/TB saat sebelum PMT Pemulihan dan setelah PMT Pemulihan.

scholarly journals Correlation between Nutritional Status and Pneumonia among 6-59 Months Years Old in Tangerang, Banten

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zico Permadi ◽  
◽  
Maria Ekawati ◽  
Citra Ayu Aprilia ◽  
◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Community Health Center ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Chi Square ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Independent Variable ◽  
Weight For Age ◽  
Children Under 5

ABSTRACT Background: Pneumonia is still causing the most deaths among children in developing countries. This disesase often occurs in children under 5 years of age. Nutritional status is a factor that is closely related to infectious diseases such as pneumonia. This study aimed to examine the correlation between nutritional status and pneumonia among 6-59 months years old in Tangerang, Banten. Subject and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at Pakuhaji Community Health Center, Tangerang, Banten, from January to February 2018. A total of 29 children under five were enrolled in this study. The dependent variable was pneumonia. The independent variable was nutritional status. The data were collected from direct measurement of the children under five and questtioner. The data were analyzed by Chi-square. Results: As many as 16 children under five (55.17%) had pneumonia, 7 children under five (24.13%) were malnutrition, 3 children under five (10.34%) were short, and 5 children under five (7.24%) were thin. Nutritional status based on weight for age and weight for height had differences in nutritional status with the incidence of pneumonia among children under five, and they were statistically significant (p< 0.001). Conclusion: Nutritional status is associate with the incidence of pneumonia among 6-59 months years old (children under five) in Tangerang, Banten. Keywords: pneumonia incidence rate, pneumonia, nutritional status, chidren under five Correspondence: Citra Ayu Aprilia. Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Pembangunan Nasional Veteran Jakarta. Email: [email protected]. Mobile: +628122090545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26911/the7thicph.03.13

scholarly journals NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF TODDLERS IN NAGARAKEMBANG VILLAGE, CINGAMBUL DISTRICT, MAJALENGKA REGENCY

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 52-60
Author(s):  
Ai Nurasiah ◽  
Merisa Laora Heryanto ◽  
Ila Ayatilah
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Sampling Technique ◽  
Additional Food ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Cross Sectional Design ◽  
Nutritional Status Of Children ◽  
The Village ◽  
Integrated Service

The coverage of visits to the integrated service post for boys and girls in the village of Nagarakembang in January 2019 was 26.82%, in February it was 42.54%, in March 81.16%. The purpose of this study was to describe the nutritional status of children under five based on the frequency of visits to integrated service posts in Nagarakembang Village, Cingambul District, Majalengka Regency. This type of research is descriptive with a cross sectional design. The sampling technique is total sampling with a sample of 85 toddlers aged 25-60 months The results showed that the toddlers who often visited the integrated service posts were 47.1%. The nutritional status of children under five was mostly normal, which was 82.4%. Respondents who frequently visited the integrated service posts were mostly with normal nutritional status, namely 31 toddlers. Conclusion: There are as many toddlers who do not visit the integrated service posts as children who visit the integrated service posts and on average have nutritional status. Suggestions for mothers of toddlers must be active in visiting integrated service posts so that they have knowledge about additional food for toddlers

scholarly journals HUBUNGAN CAKUPAN IMUNISASI DASAR DAN ASI EKSKLUSIF DENGAN STATUS GIZI BALITA DI INDONESIA (ANALISIS DATA RISKESDAS 2018)

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 335-342
Author(s):  
Ami Monika Sari ◽  
Demsa Simbolon ◽  
Tetes Wahyu
Keyword(s):  
Infectious Diseases ◽  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Exclusive Breastfeeding ◽  
Significant Relationship ◽  
Immunization Coverage ◽  
Sampling Technique ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Nutritional Status Of Children

Background: The direct causes of nutritional status problems are infectious diseases and inadequate intake. The prevalence of infectious diseases can be caused by children not getting complete basic immunization and not getting exclusive breastfeeding. Objective: The study aims to determine the relationship between complete basic immunization and exclusive breastfeeding with the nutritional status of underfive children in Indonesia. Methods: This study uses secondary data from Primary health research of Indonesia (Riskesdas 2018). It is an analytical study using a cross sectional study design. The sample in this study is toddlers spread across 34 provinces of Indonesia. The sampling technique in this study is the total population. The independent variables were complete basic immunization coverage and exclusive breastfeeding coverage. The dependent variable is the prevalence of nutritional status based on the index of Weight by age, body length according to age and body weight by length.Results: The results of the analysis found that the complete basic immunization coverage for underfive children in Indonesia was 56.18%, exclusive breastfeeding coverage was 39.59%, and the prevalence of underweight and severely underweight children under five (WHZ) was 16.67%, the prevalence of short and very short toddlers short (WHZ 29.68% and the prevalence of malnutrition and very poor (HAZ)  12.44%. using correlation test and linear regression with a significance degree of p≤0.05. Complete basic immunization coverage was associated with the prevalence of very underweight and underweight (p=0.005), short and very short (p=0.043), very undernourished and undernourished (p=0.000). Conclusion: There is a significant relationship between complete basic immunization and the nutritional status of children under five in Indonesia. There is no significant relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and the nutritional status of children under five in Indonesia.Key words: Complete basic Immunization; Exclusive breastfeeding;  Nutritional status; Underfive years old

scholarly journals Bayesian Multilevel Analysis of Determinants of Acute Respiratory Infection in Children under the Age of Five Years in Ethiopia

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Amanuel Merera ◽  
Tilahun Asena ◽  
Mebratu Senbeta
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Vitamin A ◽  
Respiratory Infection ◽  
Prevalence Rate ◽  
Acute Respiratory Infection ◽  
Wealth Index ◽  
Household Wealth ◽  
Children Under Five ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Under Five Children

Abstract Background: Acute respiratory tract infection (ARI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children under the age of five years in the world. ARIs, principally pneumonia, account for approximately 1.9 million (1.6 - 2.2 million) deaths globally in children under the age of five years in Ethiopia. Among these deaths majority occur in the developing world. The share for low and middle-income countries takes the highest indeed. In Ethiopia, the prevalence rate of ARI was 7% according to 2016 EDHS estimates. Method: Bayesian multilevel approach was employed to assess possible factors associated with the prevalence of acute respiratory infection (ARI) among under-five children in Ethiopia. The data was collected from 10,641 children under the age of five years out of which 9,918 children were considered in this study. Result: The ARI prevalence rate for children under five years was estimated as 8.4%, which was slightly higher than the estimated prevalence level of the country. The highest proportion of the prevalence of ARI was observed for children whose mothers had no education. The major health, environmental and nutritional related background characteristics of the proportion of children who had ARI varied from one region to another. The highest prevalence of ARI was observed in Tigray (15.31%) followed by Oromia (14.40%) as opposed to the low prevalence which was recorded in Benishangul Gumuz (2.58%). The utilization of vitamin A was analyzed and the results shows that about 43.10% who received vitamin A had the lowest proportion on the prevalence of ARI (7.75%) compared to not having vitamin A. About 11.13% of under-five children had Diarrhea with the highest prevalence of ARI (24.64%) and the highest prevalence of ARI was observed for the child whose source of drinking water were unprotected/unimproved (9.39%). Conclusion: The age of the child, household wealth index, mother educational level, and vitamin A supplement, history of diarrhea, maternal work, stunting and source of drinking water were found to be significantly affecting the prevalence of ARI among children under five years. Furthermore, the study revealed that there is a significant variation of incidence of ARI between and within the regions of Ethiopia. Attention should be given to those predictor variables while planning to increase the health status of children in Ethiopia.

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