The Antimicrobial Mechanism of Action of Epsilon-Poly-l-Lysine
ABSTRACTEpsilon-poly-l-lysine (ε-PL) is a natural antimicrobial cationic peptide which is generally regarded as safe (GRAS) as a food preservative. Although its antimicrobial activity is well documented, its mechanism of action is only vaguely described. The aim of this study was to clarify ε-PL's mechanism of action usingEscherichia coliandListeria innocuaas model organisms. We examined ε-PL's effect on cell morphology and membrane integrity and used an array ofE. colideletion mutants to study how specific outer membrane components affected the action of ε-PL. We furthermore studied its interaction with lipid bilayers using membrane models.In vitrocell studies indicated that divalent cations and the heptose I and II phosphate groups in the lipopolysaccharide layer ofE. coliare critical for ε-PL's binding efficiency. ε-PL removed the lipopolysaccharide layer and affected cell morphology ofE. coli, whileL. innocuaunderwent minor morphological changes. Propidium iodide staining showed that ε-PL permeabilized the cytoplasmic membrane in both species, indicating the membrane as the site of attack. We compared the interaction with neutral or negatively charged membrane systems and showed that the interaction with ε-PL relied on negative charges on the membrane. Suspended membrane vesicles were disrupted by ε-PL, and a detergent-like disruption ofE. colimembrane was confirmed by atomic force microscopy imaging of supported lipid bilayers. We hypothesize that ε-PL destabilizes membranes in a carpet-like mechanism by interacting with negatively charged phospholipid head groups, which displace divalent cations and enforce a negative curvature folding on membranes that leads to formation of vesicles/micelles.