scholarly journals Botulinum Toxin in WW2 German and Allied Armies: Failures and Myths of Weaponization

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Laurent Tatu ◽  
Jean-Paul Feugeas
Keyword(s):  
Botulinum Toxin ◽  
Biological Weapon ◽  
Military Research ◽  
Intelligence Services ◽  
National Archives ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Post War ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Military ◽  
Second World

Botulinum toxin is nowadays approved as an effective medication for various neurological disorders. The extreme toxicity of this toxin-inducing botulism, a severe lethal muscle-paralyzing illness, has been well known since the seminal works of the end of the 19th century. Because of this toxicity, botulinum toxin was one of the first agents to be considered for use as a biological weapon. The Second World War was a crucial period for the first attempts to weaponize this toxin even if many unknown factors about botulinum toxin still existed at the outbreak of the war. Using documents from the British National Archives and other published sources, we discuss the main points of the attempts to weaponize this toxin in German and Allied armies. During WW2, Allied intelligence services regularly reported a major German threat related to the potential use of botulinum toxin as a biological weapon, especially during the preparation of <i>Operation Overlord</i>, the Allied invasion to liberate Europe. All these reports would ultimately prove to be inaccurate: botulinum toxin was not part of the German military arsenal even if some German scientists tried to use the results of the French pre-war military research. Misinformation spread by intelligence services stimulated military research at Porton Down facilities in England and at Camp Detrick in the USA. These studies led to a succession of failures and myths about the weaponization of botulinum toxin. Nevertheless, major progress (purification, toxoid) arose from the military research, providing useful data for the first steps of the therapeutic use of botulinum toxin in the post-war years.

From Scotia to ‘Operation Tabarin’: developing British policy for Antarctica

Polar Record ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 48 (4) ◽  
pp. 342-360 ◽  
Author(s):  
John R. Dudeney ◽  
David W.H. Walton
Keyword(s):  
World War Ii ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
British Policy ◽  
Foreign Office ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Post War ◽  
The Military ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Second World

ABSTRACTThe roots of a British Antarctic policy can be traced, paradoxically, back to the establishment of a meteorological station by the Scottish Antarctic Expedition in the South Orkneys, in 1903, and the indifference of the British Government to its almost immediate transfer to the Argentine Government. It was from that modest physical presence upon Laurie Island that Argentina came increasingly to challenge British claims to the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands Dependencies (FID), first in the late 1920s and then more extensively in the second world war. This challenge shaped British policy for the next forty years, with further complications caused by overlapping territorial claims made by Chile and the possible territorial ambitions of the USA. Britain's eventual response, at the height of World War II, was to establish permanent occupation of Antarctica from the southern summer of 1943–1944. This occupation was given the military codename Operation Tabarin. However, it was never a military operation as such, although monitoring the activities of enemy surface raiders and submarines provided a convenient cover story, as did scientific research once the operation became public. Whilst successive parties, rich in professional scientists, considerably expanded the pre-war survey and research of the Discovery Investigations Committee, their physical occupancy of the Antarctic islands and Peninsula was essentially a political statement, whereby the Admiralty and Colonial Office (CO) strove to protect British territorial rights, whilst the Foreign Office (FO) endeavoured to minimise disruption to Britain's long-standing economic and cultural ties with Argentina, and most critically, the shipment of war-time meat supplies. In meeting that immediate need, Tabarin also provided the basis from which Britain's subsequent post-war leadership in Antarctic affairs developed.

scholarly journals THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COALITIONAL INTERACTION IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR AS ONE OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC UNION FORMATION

2021 ◽  
Vol 02 (06) ◽  
pp. 91-98
Author(s):  
R.R. Marchenkov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
North Atlantic ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
Political Aspect ◽  
The North ◽  
The North Atlantic ◽  
Anglo American ◽  
Post War ◽  
The Military ◽  
Second World

This article highlights the main milestones of Anglo-American coalition cooperation during the Second World War. The military-political aspect of cooperation is touched upon. An approach to the fusion of military mechanisms through the development of the idea of the qualitative use of the forces and means of the allies in compliance with the principle of unity of command is considered. It is concluded that certain fruits of cooperation between the Western allies, primarily within the framework of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, are taken into account in the post-war world. In addition, this article focuses on the position of the United Kingdom in terms of building a post-war security system.

scholarly journals The miracle (and mirage) of Mexican flight: Aviation development in Mexico, during and after the Second World War

2019 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 25-43
Author(s):  
Peter Soland
Keyword(s):  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
Crucial Point ◽  
Cultural Stereotypes ◽  
Commercial Aviation ◽  
Financial Decisions ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Post War ◽  
Aviation Network ◽  
Second World

This paper explores the development of Mexican commercial aviation (and more specifically the trajectory of Compañía Mexicana de Aviación) against the background of Mexico’s Second World War alliance with the USA and its post-war economic expansion. USA foreign aid allowed Mexican president Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–46) to further develop the country’s aviation network and personnel. The Second World War’s disruption of tourism allowed Mexico to reap the benefits of a rapidly growing vacation industry. The election of Miguel Aléman in 1946 reinforced commercial aviation and tourism as crucial, co-dependent elements in modernising the country and making Compañía Mexicana de Aviación a symbol of national progress. Although the Second World War emerges as a crucial point in the development of Mexican aviation, the same processes that buoyed commercial airlines also reinforced cultural stereotypes that were exploited for USA tourists and masked reckless financial decisions that nearly bankrupted Compañía Mexicana de Aviación’s in late 1950s.

scholarly journals Muddy Waters: Cross Currents in Fundraising and Its Control – 1907–1954

2017 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. 275-298
Author(s):  
Putnam Barber
Keyword(s):  
Federal Government ◽  
Local Governments ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Community Leaders ◽  
State Governments ◽  
World War ◽  
Policy Makers ◽  
Post War ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second World

AbstractDuring the first half of the 20th century, many of the techniques of modern fundraising were developed. During these decades, fundraising demonstrated its potential for supporting important community goals, financing efforts to combat dread diseases, and initiating change in public policies. In this same span of years, community leaders, journalists, and policy makers became increasingly concerned with growing opportunities for inefficient or even downright dishonest fundraising. Local governments, federated fundraising organizers, and nonprofit charity ratings agencies attempted to forestall abuses of the public’s generosity. Further, during the Second World War, the federal government imposed significant controls on fundraising for war-related activities. The year 1954 saw the passage of new laws in two states that anticipated the most common form of charitable solicitations regulation in the second half of the century, a form that is widespread today. This paper traces developments from the end of the 19th century to show how the ground was prepared for post-war efforts by state governments to regulate charitable fundraising.

scholarly journals Dietetic practice: the past, present and future

2004 ◽  
Vol 10 (6) ◽  
pp. 716-730
Author(s):  
N. Hwalla ◽  
M. Koleilat
Keyword(s):  
Ancient Greece ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Registered Dietitians ◽  
World War ◽  
The Past ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Military ◽  
Deficiency Diseases ◽  
Second World

The history of dietetics can be traced as far back as the writings of Homer, Plato and Hippocrates in ancient Greece. Although diet and nutrition continued to be judged important for health, dietetics did not progress much till the 19th century with the advances in chemistry. Early research focused focuses on vitamin deficiency diseases while later workers proposed daily requirements for protein, fat and carbohydrates. Dietetics as a profession was given a boost during the Second World War when its importance was recognized by the military. Today, professional dietetic associations can be found on every continent, and registered dietitians are involved in health promotion and treatment, and work alongside physicians. The growing need for dietetics professionals is driven by a growing public interest in nutrition and the potential of functional foods to prevent a variety of diet-related conditions

scholarly journals Characteristics of sweeteners used in foods and their effects on human health

2020 ◽  
Vol 66 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Natalia Antonik ◽  
Katarzyna Janda ◽  
Karolina Jakubczyk
Keyword(s):  
Human Health ◽  
Sweet Taste ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
Obesity Epidemic ◽  
Glucose Levels ◽  
Blood Glucose Levels ◽  
The Usa ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second World

Foodstuffs containing large amounts of sucrose, which is rapidly absorbed by the human body, cause a marked increase in blood glucose levels; for some people, especially those with diabetes, this is undesirable. Therefore, efforts were undertaken to produce food with a reduced calorie content, but maintaining a sweet taste. Additionally, food producers were interested in cutting costs by replacing sugar with a cheaper alternative.Saccharin, one of the first synthetic sweeteners, was discovered in the USA in the 2nd half of the 19th century. Subsequently, other sugar substitutes were developed: synthetic (e.g. aspartame or acesulfame K), semi-synthetic (xylitol, mannitol), or polyols.The latter were used during the First and Second World War to increase the calorific content of the available food. Nowadays, the advancing obesity epidemic has resulted in the increasing popularity of synthetic and semi-synthetic sweeteners. However, from the beginning of their existence there have been controversies regarding their safety and impact on health. There have been many studies on individual sweeteners, specifying any adverse or side effects. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to summarizes the characteristics of the most popular sweeteners and their effects on human health.

Heralding the future: the art publisher in Great Britain from the 1920s through the post-war era

1992 ◽  
Vol 17 (3) ◽  
pp. 18-26
Author(s):  
Jane Carlin
Keyword(s):  
Great Britain ◽  
Publishing House ◽  
Popular Art ◽  
Publishing Houses ◽  
Wide Readership ◽  
Post War ◽  
Coffee Table ◽  
Own Name ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second World

Major contributions to the publication of art books in the 20th century have been made by publishing houses in Great Britain. These include The Studio magazine and its associated publications, founded by Charles Holme late in the 19th century, a widely influential enterprise which was eventually to become the publishing house Studio Vista. Three other ventures resulted from initiatives by European émigrés. Anton Zwemmer arrived in England and commenced his activities as bookseller and publisher in the 1920s. Bela Horovitz’s Phaidon Press, founded in Vienna in 1923, was safeguarded from the Nazis by Sir Stanley Unwin and recommenced operations under its own name, in London, in 1946. And in 1949 Thames and Hudson was founded by Walter Neurath, who had fled Nazi Germany in 1938. The activities of these publishing houses were complemented by those of Albert Skira in Switzerland, who developed the production of art books illustrated with colour plates. After the Second World War, art publishing flourished as never before, with these and other publishers contributing to an expansion of art publishing on an international front which saw the emergence of the ‘coffee table’ book and of popular art books for a wide readership, the publication of international co-editions, and the multiplication of series. However, more art books has not always meant better art books.

scholarly journals Was the Alternative to the Cold War Possible? (To 75 anniversary of Great Victory and the creation of the UN). Article two

2020 ◽  
Vol 99 (6) ◽  
pp. 5-14
Author(s):  
Alexey Gromyko ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Cold War ◽  
Extended Period ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
The Us ◽  
Subjective Factor ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Post War ◽  
The Cold War ◽  
Second World

The article continues the research of the “big three” strategic thinking, especially the USSR and the USA, during the Second World War, their contribution to the post-war settlement with the United Nations as a key element. Their approaches to new mechanisms of global governance were developing on parallel and overlapping courses. On the chronology of the Cold War, the author proposes to define its start as an extended period from 1945 until the end of the decade. This methodology avoids absolutization of intentions, separate events and statements. Instead it imbeds them in the process of political-military structures’ construction, designed for regional and global confrontation. The attention is paid to the role of the subjective factor in transition of the “big three” from cooperation to the Cold War. The meaning of the Iranian crisis is demonstrated as an additional source of the Cold War’s premises. The author reveals the milieu of conflicting views in the US political establishment on the legacy of the “Roosevelt course” including the nuclear factor. The conclusion is drawn that in the years of the Second World War great powers pursued long-term policy towards the post-war settlement putting aside political conjuncture.

scholarly journals Les Affreux en Irak. Die Teilprivatisierung des professionellen Blutvergießens in der heutigen Kriegsführung anhand des Beispiels des Irakkriegs

2021 ◽  
pp. 177
Author(s):  
Ferdinand Kleyhons
Keyword(s):  
The United States ◽  
Private Companies ◽  
Intelligence Services ◽  
Private Military Companies ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Modern Warfare ◽  
The Military ◽  
Iraqi Freedom

Les Affreux en Irak. The partial privatisation of professional bloodshed in modern warfare exemplified by the Iraq WarAfter the launch of "Operation Iraqi Freedom", the United States of America were engaged in war for the next eight years, in which they heavily relied on the assistance of private companies, known as Private Military Companies (PMC). The following paper uses the Iraq War respectively the following occupation of Iraq as a case study to examine the role of PMCs in modern warfare. It analyses the military branches in which PMCs provided support to the USA, including logistics, training, security, and even intelligence services. It also discusses the advantages as well as disadvantages of PMCs in current combat operations.

scholarly journals Victorious powers and Spain in the post-war world order

2017 ◽  
pp. 16-19
Author(s):  
Elena Kryukova
Keyword(s):  
Foreign Policy ◽  
International Relations ◽  
World Order ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Domestic Policy ◽  
World War ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Post War ◽  
Second World ◽  
New System

The article deals with the foreign policy and domestic policy of Spain in the first years after the end of the Second World War. The author analyzes the relationships between the Francoist Spain and the USA, England, France and the USSR during the difficult period of entry of the country into the new system of the international relations.

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