scholarly journals Ringworm in calves: risk factors, improved molecular diagnosis, and therapeutic efficacy of an Aloe vera gel extract

2020 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yasmine H. Tartor ◽  
Wafaa M. El-Neshwy ◽  
Abdallah M. A. Merwad ◽  
Mohamed F. Abo El-Maati ◽  
Rehab E. Mohamed ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Nested Pcr ◽  
Aloe Vera ◽  
Breeding Systems ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Diagnostic Indices ◽  
Conventional Methods ◽  
Antidermatophytic Activity

Abstract Background Dermatophytosis in calves is a major public and veterinary health concern worldwide because of its zoonotic potential and associated economic losses in cattle farms. However, this condition has lacked adequate attention; thus, to develop effective control measures, we determined ringworm prevalence, risk factors, and the direct-sample nested PCR diagnostic indices compared with the conventional methods of dermatophytes identification. Moreover, the phenolic composition of an Aloe vera gel extract (AGE) and its in vitro and in vivo antidermatophytic activity were evaluated and compared with those of antifungal drugs. Results Of the 760 calves examined, 55.79% (424/760) showed ringworm lesions; 84.91% (360/424) were positive for fungal elements in direct-microscopy, and 79.72% (338/424) were positive in culture. Trichophyton verrucosum was the most frequently identified dermatophyte (90.24%). The risk of dermatophytosis was higher in 4–6-month-old vs. 1-month-old calves (60% vs. 41%), and in summer and winter compared with spring and autumn seasons (66 and 54% vs. 48%). Poor hygienic conditions, intensive breeding systems, animal raising for meat production, parasitic infestation, crossbreeding, and newly purchased animals were statistically significant risk factors for dermatophytosis. One-step PCR targeting the conserved regions of the 18S and 28S genes achieved unequivocal identification of T. verrucosum and T. mentagrophytes in hair samples. Nested-PCR exhibited an excellent performance in all tested diagnostic indices and increased the species-specific detection of dermatophytes by 20% compared with culture. Terbinafine and miconazole were the most active antifungal agents for dermatophytes. Gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, aloe-Emodin, quercetin, and rutin were the major phenolic compounds of AGE, as assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These compounds increased and synergized the antidermatophytic activity of AGE. The treated groups showed significantly lower clinical scores vs. the control group (P < 0.05). The calves were successfully treated with topical AGE (500 ppm), resulting in clinical and mycological cure within 14–28 days of the experiment; however, the recovery was achieved earlier in the topical miconazole 2% and AGE plus oral terbinafine groups. Conclusions The nested PCR assay provided a rapid diagnostic tool for dermatophytosis and complemented the conventional methods for initiating targeted treatments for ringworm in calves. The recognized antidermatophytic potential of AGE is an advantageous addition to the therapeutic outcomes of commercial drugs.

scholarly journals Ringworm in calves: Risk factors, improved molecular diagnosis, and efficacy of Aloe vera gel extract for treatment

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yasmine Hasanine Tartor ◽  
Wafaa M. I. El-Neshwy ◽  
Abdallah M. A. Merwad ◽  
Mohamed F. Abo El-Maati ◽  
Rehab E. Mohamed ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Nested Pcr ◽  
Aloe Vera ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Diagnostic Indices ◽  
Aloe Vera Gel ◽  
Hair Samples ◽  
Conventional Methods ◽  
Pcr Targeting

Abstract Background: Calves dermatophytosis is a major public and veterinary health problem worldwide due to its zoonotic potential and economic losses in cattle farms. However, it has lacked adequate attention; thereby for effective control measures it is worth determining ringworm prevalence, risk factors and direct sample nested-PCR diagnostic indices as compared to conventional methods for dermatophytes identification. Moreover, Aloe vera gel extract (AGE) phenolic composition and its in-vitro and in-vivo anti-dermatophytic activity in comparison to antifungal drugs were evaluated. Results: Of 760 examined calves, 55.79 % showed ringworm lesions. 84.91% were positive for fungal elements in direct microscopy, and 79.72% were culture positive. Trichophyton verrucosum was the most frequently identified dermatophytes (90.24%). Risk of dermatophytosis is high in 4-6 month than 1-month aged calves (60% versus 41%), in summer and winter compared to spring and autumn seasons (66% and 54% versus 48%). Poor hygienic conditions, intensive breeding system, animals raised for meat production, parasitic infestation, crossbreed, and newly purchased animals were statistically significant risk factors correlated with dermatophytosis. One-step PCR targeting conserved regions in the 18S and 28S genes achieved unequivocal identification of T. verrucosum and T. mentagrophytes in hair samples. Nested-PCR achieved an excellent performance in all tested diagnostic indices and increased the species-specific detection of dermatophytes by 20 % as compared to culture. Terbinafine and miconazole were the most active antifungal agents for dermatophytes. Gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, aloe-Emodin, quercetin, and rutin are the major phenolic compounds of AGE identified by High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These compounds increased and synergized the anti-dermatophytic activity of AGE. The treated groups showed significantly lower clinical scores than the control group ( P < 0.05). The calves were successfully treated with topical AGE (500 ppm) resulting in clinical and mycological cure within 14-28 day of the experiment. Conclusions: Implementation of nested-PCR assay providing a rapid diagnostic tool for dermatophytosis augments and complement the conventional methods for initiating targeted treatments of calves ringworm. The recognized anti-dermatophytic potential of AGE is advantageous countenance to commercial drugs to go used in therapeutics.

scholarly journals Molecular Epidemiology of Bovine Babesiosis in Punjab, Pakistan

2021 ◽  
Vol 49 ◽  
Author(s):  
Asif Masih ◽  
Azhar Rafique ◽  
Farhat Jabeen ◽  
Shabana Naz
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Nested Pcr ◽  
Dairy Industry ◽  
Summer Season ◽  
Babesia Bovis ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Molecular Evidence ◽  
Conventional Pcr ◽  
Associated Risk Factors ◽  
Pcr Targeting

Background: Babesiosis is endemic in Pakistan and is one of the most important bovine diseases that causes huge economic losses and high mortality in young animals. This disease is transmitted by a protozoan parasite babesia which belongs to genus Babesia (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida: Babesiidae). This disease is very much prevalent in summers followed by rainy season because humid environment is favorable for the growth of these parasites. An epidemiological and molecular study was conducted to unveil the prevalence and associated risk factors of Babesia bigemina (B. bigemina) and Babesia bovis (B. bovis) in selected districts i.e., Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh and Jhang of Punjab, Pakistan.Materials, Methods & Results: A total of 518 (Cattle = 360, Buffalo = 158) blood samples were collected. The samples were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nested PCR (n-PCR) targeting apocytochrome b-genes (CYTb). Chi-square test for univariate analysis was used to analyze the data. The overall prevalence in summer based upon microscopic analysis was 20.55% (37/180) and 13.92% (11/79) in cattle and buffaloes respectively and in winter was 8.80% (16/180), 5.06% (4/79)) in cattle and buffaloes respectively. The samples were further analyzed through conventional PCR (c-PCR) and nested PCR (nPCR). The overall results of conventional PCR in summer showed that 72 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. The conventional PCR based results of summer showed that prevalence of babesiosis was 29.44% (53/180) in cows and 24.05% (19/79) buffaloes. The results of cPCR during the winter season showed that 12.77% (23/180) and 13.92% (11/79) buffaloes were positive for babesiosis. The overall results of conventional PCR in winter showed that 34/259 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. On the other hand, the nested PCR results of summer season showed that the prevalence of babesiosis in cows was 32.22% (58/180) and 29.11% (23/79) in buffaloes. In total, 81 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis during summer season. The nPCR results of winter showed that 15% (27/180) cows and 20.25% (16/79) buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. In total, 43 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. The results have shown that sensitivity of n-PCR is more as compared to conventional PCR. This study is the first molecular evidence of B. bigemina and B. bovis and its associated risk factors in Punjab province, Pakistan.Discussion: Dairy sector in Pakistan is one of the fastest growing sectors. Despite of remarkable growth, dairy industry is facing many problems one of them is tick borne diseases (TBDs). TBDs are more prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas of the world and leads to huge economic losses to dairy industry in terms of decreased milk, meat and wool production. Babesiosis is characterized by increased fever, decreased production, poor quality wool, anemia, hemoglobinuria, paleness of mucous membrane. The risk factors analysis of summer and winter data revealed that, adult animals were more prone to babesiosis (24.00%) [P = 0.032] and (8.50%) [P = 0.048]. In both seasons (summer and winter), females were more infected with babesiosis (20.19% and 8.17%) [P = 0.049 and P =0.021] as compared to males, high prevalence in females was might be due to that females were reared for longer period of time. Babesiosis was more occurred in non-cemented floor system (26.01% and 13.51%) [P = 0.028 and P = 0.044] in summer and winter, respectively. Disease was found more prevalent in closed housing system in summer and winter (27.27% and 10.93%) [P = 0.043 and P = 0.034] as compared to open housing. Weak animals were more infected with babesiosis (30.84%) [P = 0.045] and (12.80%) [P = 0.042] in summer and winter, as compared to healthy ones. The animals with high tick infestations were more suffered with babesia infection (25.49% and 13.34%) [P = 0.036 and P = 0.003] in both seasons as compared to less tick burden. Keywords: apocytochrome gene, babesiosis, bovine, nPCR, PCR, season.

scholarly journals Seroprevalence, Risk Factors and Molecular Identification of Bovine Leukemia Virus in Egyptian Cattle

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 319
Author(s):  
Abdelfattah Selim ◽  
Eman A. Manaa ◽  
Abdullah D. Alanazi ◽  
Mohamed S. Alyousif
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Dairy Cattle ◽  
Bovine Leukemia Virus ◽  
Leukemia Virus ◽  
Significant Risk ◽  
Control Program ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Genetic Classification ◽  
Associated Risk Factors

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is distributed worldwide and affects dairy cattle causing severe economic losses. The BLV has been serologically reported in Egypt, but few studies have evaluated its associated risk factors and genetic classification. Therefore, this study assessed risk factors associated with BLV infection and identified the genetic diversity of the Egyptian strain. The study was conducted on 500 dairy cattle distributed in four Governorates located in Northern Egypt. Overall, the seroprevalence of BLV infection among Egyptian dairy cattle was 18.2%. The grazing cattle in the losing house system had higher odds for BLV seropositivity, and bad practice such as the use of a single needle or one plastic glove for more than one animal was considered a significant risk factor for BLV infection. Besides, the sequencing and phylogenetic analysis for one Egyptian BLV strain was performed, and the obtained results confirmed the clustering of Egyptian BLV strain into genotype-1. The assessment of associated risk factors for BLV infection and determination of its genetic classification are essential to implement an effective control program.

scholarly journals First report and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in humans and animals in Khartoum state, Sudan

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 183-189 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kaltoum Yagoub Adam ◽  
A. A. Ismail ◽  
M. A. Masri ◽  
A. A. Gameel
Keyword(s):  
Nested Pcr ◽  
Mammalian Species ◽  
Pcr Amplification ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Staining Procedure ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction ◽  
Cryptosporidium Spp ◽  
Pcr Targeting

Background and Aim: Cryptosporidium is recognized to infect several mammalian species as well as humans, causing substantial economic losses and serious public health concern. Infected animals can be a source of environmental contamination and human infections. In general, the occurrence of Cryptosporidium species in animals and human in Sudan and zoonotic importance is not well documented. This study aimed to identify Cryptosporidium spp. infecting different animal species and humans and to compare between different isolates obtained. Materials and Methods: To provide molecular information about Cryptosporidium in animals and humans, both modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) specific stain and molecular assay were used. Concentration techniques followed by three protocols of DNA extraction were carried out. After microscopic screening of 263 fecal samples (goats [n=197], cattle [n=12], sheep [n=12], and human [n=42]), 61 positive and 30 negative, randomly selected samples were used in nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting part of the 18S RNA. Results: Nested PCR amplification confirmed 91.8% (56/61) of microscopic-positive samples. 8.2% (5/61) of negative samples by PCR (positive by microscopy) were considered false negatives. Sequencing followed by alignment of the 14 isolates indicated that all samples were identical (100%) and belonged to Cryptosporidium parvum. Conclusion: MZN staining procedure is reliable for the routine diagnosis of Cryptosporidium; cetyltrimethylammonium bromide extraction buffer and nested PCR targeting 18S rRNA gene are reliable and useful in epidemiological studies of this parasite.

scholarly journals Acute Febrile Illness Caused by Brucella abortus Infection in Humans in Pakistan

2019 ◽  
Vol 16 (21) ◽  
pp. 4071 ◽  
Author(s):  
Saddique ◽  
Ali ◽  
Akhter ◽  
Khan ◽  
Neubauer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Socioeconomic Status ◽  
Potential Risk ◽  
Brucella Abortus ◽  
Febrile Illness ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Acute Febrile Illness ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Potential Risk Factors

Brucellosis is a zoonosis of great and worldwide public health concern that can cause a severe febrile illness in humans. In Pakistan, brucellosis is a critical problem in both animals and humans. This study aimed to gain insight into its prevalence and to analyze the potential risk factors of patients with acute febrile illness (AFI) of an unknown cause, at the hospitals of Rawalpindi and Islamabad in Pakistan. In total, 446 blood samples were collected from patients and screened for brucellosis using the Rose Bengal Plat Test (RBPT). All the serum samples were investigated for Brucella DNA using specific real-time PCR. Age, sex, occupation, urbanicity, socioeconomic status and history of animal contact were recorded and assessed as potential risk factors. The proportion of acute febrile illness patients for whom brucellosis could be suspected was 10.1% by the RBPT. Brucella DNA was detected in 26 (5.8%) cases and identified as B. abortus. Contact with infected animals, consumption of raw milk and socioeconomic status showed a highly significant (p ˂ 0.05) correlation with seropositivity. Elderly patients (19.7% RBPT and 12.1% PCR) and females (13% RBPT and 9.3% PCR) were of high risk of brucellosis. Patients suffering from brucellosis-related manifestations should be screened for brucellosis, especially those in contact with animals or those consuming their unprocessed products, given the increased risk. The results of this study, which highlight that Brucella abortus as an important cause of acute febrile illnesses in humans, aid the development of effective control strategies for human brucellosis in Pakistan.

scholarly journals Prevalence of BRD-Related Viral Pathogens in the Upper Respiratory Tract of Swiss Veal Calves

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (7) ◽  
pp. 1940
Author(s):  
Eveline Studer ◽  
Lutz Schönecker ◽  
Mireille Meylan ◽  
Dimitri Stucki ◽  
Ronald Dijkman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Welfare Economic ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Nasopharyngeal Swab ◽  
Upper Respiratory Tract ◽  
Convenience Sample ◽  
Veal Calves ◽  
Mixed Regression ◽  
Influenza C Virus ◽  
Syncytial Virus

The prevention of bovine respiratory disease is important, as it may lead to impaired welfare, economic losses, and considerable antimicrobial use, which can be associated with antimicrobial resistance. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of respiratory viruses and to identify risk factors for their occurrence. A convenience sample of 764 deep nasopharyngeal swab samples from veal calves was screened by PCR for bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine parainfluenza-3 virus (BPI3V), bovine coronavirus (BCoV), influenza D virus (IDV), and influenza C virus (ICV). The following prevalence rates were observed: BRSV, 2.1%; BPI3V, 3.3%; BCoV, 53.5%; IDV, 4.1%; ICV, 0%. Logistic mixed regression models were built for BCoV to explore associations with calf management and housing. Positive swab samples were more frequent in younger calves than older calves (>100 days; p < 0.001). The probability of detecting BCoV increased with increasing group size in young calves. Findings from this study suggested that young calves should be fattened in small groups to limit the risk of occurrence of BCoV, although an extended spectrum of risk factors for viral associated respiratory disorders such as nutritional aspects should be considered in future studies.

scholarly journals Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in domestic pigs raised from Cuba

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Julio César Castillo-Cuenca ◽  
Álvaro Martínez-Moreno ◽  
José Manuel Diaz-Cao ◽  
Angel Entrena-García ◽  
Jorge Fraga ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Toxoplasma Gondii ◽  
Meat Products ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Serum Samples ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Weaning Pigs ◽  
Associated Risk Factors

AbstractA cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in pigs in the largest pork-producing region in Cuba. Serum samples from 420 pigs, including 210 sows and 210 post-weaning pigs, were tested for antibodies against T. gondii using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Anti-T. gondii antibodies were detected in 56 animals (13.3%, 95% CI: 10.1–16.6). A generalized estimating equations model revealed that the risk factors associated with higher seropositivity in pigs were altitude (higher in farm’s location < 250 m above sea level (masl) versus ≥ 250 masl) and age (higher in sows compared to post-weaning pigs). The results indicated that this protozoan parasite is widely distributed on pig farms in the study area, which is a public health concern since the consumption of raw or undercooked pork meat products containing tissue cysts is considered one of the main routes of T. gondii transmission worldwide. Control measures should be implemented to reduce the risk of exposure to T. gondii in pigs in Cuba.

scholarly journals Sero-epidemiological survey of bluetongue disease in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan

2021 ◽  
Vol 74 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Molhima M. Elmahi ◽  
Mohammed O. Hussien ◽  
Abdel Rahim E. Karrar ◽  
Amira M. Elhassan ◽  
Abdel Rahim M. El Hussein
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Potential Risk ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Water Source ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Serum Samples ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Potential Risk Factors ◽  
Eastern Sudan

Abstract Background Bluetongue (BT) is a vector-borne viral disease of ruminant and camelid species which is transmitted by Culicoides spp. The causative agent of BT is bluetongue virus (BTV) that belongs to genus Orbivirus of the family Reoviridae. The clinical disease is seen mainly in sheep but mostly sub-clinical infections of BT are seen in cattle, goats and camelids. The clinical reaction of camels to infection is usually not apparent. The disease is notifiable to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), causing great economic losses due to decreased trade and high mortality and morbidity rates associated with bluetongue outbreaks. The objective of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of BTV in camels in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan and to identify the potential risk factors associated with the infection. A cross sectional study using a structured questionnaire survey was conducted during 2015–2016. A total of 210 serum samples were collected randomly from camels from 8 localities of Kassala State. The serum samples were screened for the presence of BTV specific immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Results Seropositivity to BTV IgG was detected in 165 of 210 camels’ sera accounting for a prevalence of 78.6%. Potential risk factors to BTV infection were associated with sex (OR = 0.061, p-value = 0.001) and seasonal river as water source for drinking (OR = 32.257, p-value = 0.0108). Conclusions Sex and seasonal river as water source for drinking were considered as potential risk factors for seropositivity to BTV in camels. The high prevalence of BTV in camels in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, necessitates further epidemiological studies of BTV infection in camels and other ruminant species to better be able to control BT disease in this region.

‘I think one of the ways they will help is to create awareness’: primary school teachers’ perceptions of cardiovascular diseases in Nigeria

2019 ◽  
Vol 27 (4) ◽  
pp. 24-31
Author(s):  
Kingsley Udeh ◽  
Candidus Nwakasi ◽  
John Fulton
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Cardiovascular Diseases ◽  
Primary School ◽  
Cardiovascular Health ◽  
Communicable Diseases ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Structured Interviews ◽  
School Teachers ◽  
Primary School Teachers ◽  
Non Communicable Diseases

The increasing incidence and prevalence of non-communicable diseases is a major global health concern. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) account for the highest percentage of deaths related to non-communicable diseases, and low and middle-income countries (LMIC) face the highest burden of CVDs. Understanding the knowledge and perception of CVDs and their risk factors in an LMIC such as Nigeria may play an important role in cardiovascular health promotion and improvement plans to reduce CVD-related deaths. A qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured interviews to gain an in-depth understanding of some personal and sociocultural views on CVDs and their risk factors. The participants were purposively sampled primary school teachers in South-Eastern Nigeria. Thematic analysis approach was used for data analysis. The study findings include knowledge of heart disease, perceived causes and risk factors of CVDs, spirituality, and the way forward. Overall, the knowledge of CVDs in the setting was found to be related to the psychosocial nature of the participants; the effectiveness of any intervention needs to take these factors into consideration. For example, health policies for CVD health education and awareness should be tailored to address some of the issues of belief, values, and religion, as mentioned in the study.

scholarly journals Risk factors associated with Ctenocephalides felis flea infestation of peri-urban goats: a neglected parasite in an under-appreciated host

2021 ◽  
Vol 53 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Julia Rose Dahm ◽  
Jordana Burdon Bailey ◽  
Robert F. Kelly ◽  
Patrick Chikungwa ◽  
Julius Chulu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Urban Communities ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Animal Husbandry ◽  
Ctenocephalides Felis ◽  
Disease Spread ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Flea Infestation

AbstractGoats are critical in mixed smallholder agricultural systems in lower and middle-income countries, while fleas are important human and animal health concerns around the world. Convenience sampling was used to describe and consider risk factors for flea infestations of peri-urban goats, with the aim of informing the iterative development of animal husbandry and management based control strategies. Seven hundred and ninety-two goats were examined in 228 households across 10 peri-urban communities surrounding Blantyre in southern Malawi. The prevalence of Ctenocephalides felis fleas was 18.3, 37.1 and 100% at the levels of individual goats, households and communities, respectively, highlighting a neglected human and animal health concern. Constant introduction of new livestock coupled to a lack of biosecurity within communities, the ubiquitous presence of dog and cat hosts for C. felis, the frequency and thoroughness of cleaning overnight goat accommodation, and goat age less than 12 months old were identified as risk factors for flea infestation. This focal cross-sectional study highlights the significance of fleas in peri-urban communities and uncovers trends and commonalities that are needed to inform sustainable disease management. The majority of the peri-urban goat keepers were female, had resided in the same community throughout their whole life and had primary level education. Advice on the planned management of fleas in livestock needs to be tailored towards this demographic group. This approach affords an opportunity to promote public health measures to address household flea infestations and zoonotic disease spread.

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