A structured additive modeling of diabetes and hypertension in Northeast India

Background Multiple factors are associated with the risk of diabetes and hypertension. In India, they vary widely even from one district to another. Therefore, strategies for controlling diabetes and hypertension should appropriately address local risk factors and take into account the specific causes of the prevalence of diabetes and hypertension at sub-population levels and in specific settings. This paper examines the demographic and socioeconomic risk factors as well as the spatial disparity of diabetes and hypertension among adults aged 15–49 years in Northeast India. Methods The study used data from the Indian Demographic Health Survey, which was conducted across the country between 2015 and 2016. All men and women between the ages of 15 and 49 years were tested for diabetes and hypertension as part of the survey. A Bayesian geo-additive model was used to determine the risk factors of diabetes and hypertension. Results The prevalence rates of diabetes and hypertension in Northeast India were, respectively, 6.38% and 16.21%. The prevalence was higher among males, urban residents, and those who were widowed/divorced/separated. The functional relationship between household wealth index and diabetes and hypertension was found to be an inverted U-shape. As the household wealth status increased, its effect on diabetes also increased. However, interestingly, the inverse was observed in the case of hypertension, that is, as the household wealth status increased, its effect on hypertension decreased. The unstructured spatial variation in diabetes was mainly due to the unobserved risk factors present within a district that were not related to the nearby districts, while for hypertension, the structured spatial variation was due to the unobserved factors that were related to the nearby districts. Conclusion Diabetes and hypertension control measures should consider both local and non-local factors that contribute to the spatial heterogeneity. More importance should be given to efforts aimed at evaluating district-specific factors in the prevalence of diabetes within a region.

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Prevalence of non-communicable disease risk factors among poor shantytown residents in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a community-based cross-sectional survey

BMJ Open ◽

10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014710 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 7 (11) ◽

pp. e014710 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Md Khalequzzaman ◽

Chifa Chiang ◽

Sohel Reza Choudhury ◽

Hiroshi Yatsuya ◽

Mohammad Abdullah Al-Mamun ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Tobacco Use ◽

Urban Poor ◽

Communicable Disease ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Community Based ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Biochemical Measurements ◽

Non Communicable Disease

ObjectivesThis study aims to describe the prevalence of non-communicable disease (NCD) risk factors among the urban poor in Bangladesh.DesignWe conducted a community-based cross-sectional epidemiological study.SettingThe study was conducted in a shantytown in the city of Dhaka. There were 8604 households with 34 170 residents in the community. Those households were categorised into two wealth strata based on the housing structure.ParticipantsThe study targeted residents aged 18–64 years. A total of 2986 eligible households with one eligible individual were selected by simple random sampling stratified by household wealth status. A total of 2551 residents completed the questionnaire survey, and 2009 participated in the subsequent physical and biochemical measurements.Outcome measuresA modified WHO survey instrument was used for assessing behavioural risk factors and physical and biochemical measurements, including glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). The prevalence of NCD risk factors, such as tobacco use, fruit and vegetable intake, overweight/obesity, hypertension, diabetes (HbA1c ≥6.5%) and dyslipidaemia, was described according to household wealth status and gender differences.ResultsThe prevalence of current tobacco use was 60.4% in men and 23.5% in women. Most of them (90.8%) consumed more than 1 serving of fruits and vegetables per day; however, only 2.1% consumed more than 5 servings. Overweight/obesity was more common in women (39.2%) than in men (18.9%), while underweight was more common in men (21.0%) than in women (7.1%). The prevalence of hypertension was 18.6% in men and 20.7% in women. The prevalence of diabetes was 15.6% in men and 22.5% in women, which was much higher than the estimated national prevalence (7%). The prevalence of raised total cholesterol (≥190 mg/dL) was 25.7% in men and 34.0% in women.ConclusionThe study identified that tobacco use, both overweight and underweight, diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidaemia were prevalent among the urban poor in Bangladesh.

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Socio-economic determinants of child mortality in Pakistan and the moderating role of household’s wealth index

BMC Pediatrics ◽

10.1186/s12887-021-03076-2 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 22 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Muhammad Farhan Asif ◽

Zahid Pervaiz ◽

Jawad Rahim Afridi ◽

Rida Safdar ◽

Ghulam Abid ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Child Mortality ◽

Women's Education ◽

Wealth Index ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Economic Determinants ◽

Development Goals ◽

Target Set ◽

Moderating Role

Abstract Background Child mortality is an important social indicator that describes the health conditions of a country as well as determines the country’s overall socio-economic development. The Government of Pakistan has been struggling to reduce child mortality (67.2 per thousand live births in 2019). Pakistan could not achieve the target set for Millennium Development Goals to reduce child mortality and still working to meet the target set by the Sustainable Development Goals. This study has investigated the socio-economic determinants of child mortality in Pakistan by using household-level data. Socio-economic characteristics related to women (mothers) and households have been considered as possible determinants of child mortality. The moderating role of a household’s wealth index on the association between woman’s education and child mortality has also been investigated. Methods The comprehensive dataset of the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2017–18 has been used to explore the determinants of child mortality by using multivariable logistic regression. The interaction term of women’s education and household wealth index has been used to investigate the moderating role of the household’s wealth index. Results The results indicate that the likelihood of child mortality decreases with an increase in women’s education, their empowerment, their husband’s education, the wealth status of their households, access to clean drinking water, access to toilet facilities, and exposure to mass media. Whereas, an increase in unmet need for family planning increases the likelihood of child mortality. The study also identified the moderating role of a household’s wealth index on the association between woman’s education and child mortality. Conclusions Household wealth status moderates the association between women’s education and child mortality. The absolute slope of the curve showing the association of women’s education and child mortality is higher (more negative) for richer households than poorer households. It implies that a household’s wealth status strengthens the relationship between women’s education and child mortality. With the increase in the household’s wealth status, the effect of a mother’s education on child mortality becomes more pronounced.

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Risk Factors Associated With Frequency of Antenatal Visits, Number of Items of Antenatal Care Contents Received and Timing of First Antenatal Care Visits in Ethiopia: Multilevel Mixed-Effects Analysis

10.21203/rs.3.rs-110214/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Berhanu Woldeamanuel ◽

Tadesse Belachew

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Decision Making ◽

Antenatal Care ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Mixed Effects ◽

Care Utilization ◽

Rural Residence ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Factors Associated ◽

Antenatal Care Utilization

Abstract Background: An improved quality Antenatal care (ANC) from skilled providers is essential to pregnant women so that ensure the key health circumstances for mother and child during pregnancy. Thus, this study attempted to assess which risk factors are significantly associated with the timing of antenatal care, the number of antenatal care visits, and the number of items of antenatal care contents received from skilled providers in the recent pregnancy among mothers in Ethiopia. Methods: Data was extracted from the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. A total of 4,685 mothers was included in the analysis. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression analysis and multilevel mixed Negative binomial models were fitted to find the factors associated with antenatal care utilization. A 95% Confidence Interval of Odds ratio/Incidence rate ratio excluding one was reported as significant association with timely initiation of the ANC, numbers of ANC visits, numbers of items of antenatal care contents received and predictor variables.Results: About 20% of the mothers initiated ANC within the first trimester, 36.3% visits at least four ANCs, 3.6% have visited at least eight ANCs, and only 53% received at least four items of antenatal care contents. Rural residence (IRR = 0.81; 95%CI: 0.80-0.89), wanted no more children (IRR = 0.83; 95%CI: 0.75-0.91), mother without decision making power (IRR = 0.90; 95%CI: 0.83-0.98) associated with reduced frequency of ANC visits, while being rural residents (IRR = 0.82; 95%CI: 0.75-0.90), wanted no more children (IRR = 0.87; 95%CI: 0.79-0.96), husband alone decision maker of mothers health care (IRR = 0.88; 95%CI: 0.81-0.96) associated with reduced items of ANC content received. Further, birth order six or more (IRR = 0.74; 95%CI: 0.56-0.96), rural residence (IRR = 0.0.41; 95%CI: 0.34-0.51), wanted no more children (IRR = 0.61; 95%CI: 0.48-0.77) associated with delayed antenatal care utilization. Moreover, higher household wealth status, primary or secondary or higher education of mothers and partner, listening to the radio and watching television at least once a week, and a short distance to health facility were positively significantly associated with the frequency of antenatal care visits, numbers of items of ANC contents received and early initiation of ANC visit for the recent pregnancy during the last five years before the survey. Conclusions: Rural residence, poorest household wealth status, no education level of mothers or partners, unexposed to mass media, unwanted pregnancy, mothers without decision making power, and big distance to the nearest health facility, have a significant impact in delaying the timing of ANC visits, reducing the number of ANC visits and items of ANC received in Ethiopia. We ought to timely initiate an ANC visit for a frequent antenatal care visit during pregnancy. Educating girls and encouraging mothers to use modern contraceptives in order to prevent unwanted pregnancies are vital ingredients that should be included in all policies aiming to reduce maternal and neonatal deaths through improved quality of antenatal care utilization.

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Simultaneous quantile regression and determinants of under-five severe chronic malnutrition in Ghana.

10.21203/rs.2.14233/v2 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Justice Moses K. Aheto

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Quantile Regression ◽

Significant Risk ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Public Health Issue ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Chronic Malnutrition ◽

Severe Stunting ◽

Under Five ◽

The Impact

Abstract Background Under-five malnutrition is a major public health issue contributing to mortality and morbidity, especially in developing countries like Ghana where the rates remain unacceptably high. Identification of critical risk factors of under-five malnutrition using appropriate and advanced statistical methods can help formulate appropriate health programmes and policies aimed at achieving the United Nations SDG Goal 2 target 2. This study attempts to develop a simultaneous quantile regression, an in-depth statistical model to identify critical risk factors of under-five severe chronic malnutrition (severe stunting). Methods Based on the nationally representative data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, height-for-age z-score (HAZ) was estimated. Multivariable simultaneous quantile regression modelling was employed to identify critical risk factors for severe stunting based on HAZ (a measure of chronic malnutrition in populations). Quantiles of HAZ with focus on severe stunting were modelled and the impact of the risk factors determined. Significant test of the difference between slopes at different selected quantiles of severe stunting and other quantiles were performed. A quantile regression plots of slopes were developed to visually examine the impact of the risk factors across these quantiles. Results Data on a total of 2716 children were analysed out of which 144 (5.3%) were severely stunted. The models identified child level factors such as type of birth, sex, age, place of delivery and size at birth as significant risk factors of under-five severe stunting. Maternal and household level factors identified as significant predictors of under-five severe stunting were maternal age and education, maternal national health insurance status, household wealth status, and number of children under-five in households. Highly significant differences exist in the slopes between 0.1 and 0.9 quantiles. The quantile regression plots for the selected quantiles from 0.1 to 0.9 showed substantial differences in the impact of the covariates across the quantiles of HAZ considered. Conclusion Critical risk factors that can aid formulation of child nutrition and health policies and interventions that will improve child nutritional outcomes and survival were identified. Modelling under-five severe stunting using multivariable simultaneous quantile regression models could be beneficial to addressing the under-five severe stunting.

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The urban–rural differential in the association between household wealth index and anemia among women in reproductive age in Ethiopia, 2016

BMC Women s Health ◽

10.1186/s12905-021-01461-8 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Teshager Weldegiorgis Abate ◽

Biruk Getahun ◽

Mekuriaw Mesfin Birhan ◽

Getasew Mulatu Aknaw ◽

Sefealem Assefa Belay ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Pregnant Women ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Wealth Index ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Reproductive Age ◽

Women Of Childbearing Age ◽

Childbearing Age ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Urban Rural

Abstract Background Anemia is more prevalent among women, and it is a moderate public health problem in Ethiopia. The wealth status and place of residence of a woman have implications on the intervention of anemia. Studies that examined the relationship between women’s wealth index status and residency in Ethiopia are scarce. We aimed to identify the urban–rural differential in the association between household wealth index and anemia among women of childbearing age in Ethiopia. Method A cross-sectional design was employed with a nationally representative sample of 14,100 women aged 15–49-year-old from the Ethiopian demographic and health survey conducted in 2016. We used the two-stage sampling method to select the sample size. The primary outcome was anemia in women of childbearing age. A hemoglobin level of below 11 g/dl for pregnant women and 12 g/dl for non-pregnant women was the indicator of anemia. Using a three-level random intercept model to explore associated factors at the individual and household levels quantified the observed and unobserved variations between household wealth index and residence on anemia. Results Women belonging to a lower household wealth index category were more anemic (29.6%) than those middle and above wealth index categories. Women who lived in rural areas (25.5%) were prone to anemia than those who lived in urban areas (17.5%). The odds of anemia were significantly higher in women of the low household wealth category who living in rural compared to women of the middle and above household wealth category who living in urban (AOR = 1.37, 95% CI 1.14–1.65, P < 0.001). Conclusion In this study, anemia is more common among women who live in rural with the low house wealth category. Therefore, novel public health interventions should target women who live in rural areas with the lowest household wealth status.

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Young motherhood: levels and socioeconomic determinants of adolescent fertility in Ghana

SN Social Sciences ◽

10.1007/s43545-021-00259-7 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 1 (10) ◽

Author(s):

Samuel H. Nyarko ◽

Lloyd Potter

Keyword(s):

Socioeconomic Factors ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Control Measures ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Female Adolescents ◽

Demographic And Health Surveys ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Adolescent Childbearing ◽

Factors Associated ◽

Adolescent Fertility

AbstractAdolescent fertility levels have shown considerable improvements globally over the past decades. However, adolescent childbearing remains high in developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This study, thus, examines the levels and socioeconomic factors associated with adolescent fertility in Ghana. The study drew on data from the 2003, 2008, to the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys to perform a logistic regression analysis of socioeconomic factors associated with adolescent fertility. The results show that adolescent childbearing levels have not shown any considerable improvements over the study periods (10%, 10%, and 11% for 2003, 2008, and 2014, respectively). Socioeconomic factors such as household wealth status, working status, employer status, and employment period were associated with adolescent fertility. Female adolescents from poor households, employed and self-employed adolescents, as well as regular workers, were linked to higher adolescent fertility risks. Older adolescents, and ever married adolescents also show significantly higher childbearing risks while the risk levels steadily increased over time. Promoting economic empowerment among female adolescents and targeting employed female adolescents in fertility control measures may have considerable positive implications for adolescent fertility levels in Ghana.

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Risk Factors Associated with Under-Five Stunting, Wasting, and Underweight Based on Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey Datasets in Tigray Region, Ethiopia

Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism ◽

10.1155/2019/6967170 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 2019 ◽

pp. 1-11 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Berhanu Teshome Woldeamanuel ◽

Tigist Tigabie Tesfaye

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Antenatal Care ◽

Significant Risk ◽

Wealth Index ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Binary Logistic Regression Analysis ◽

Under Five ◽

Factors Associated ◽

Tigray Region

Background. Stunting, wasting, and underweight among children are major problems in most regions of Ethiopia, including the Tigray region. The main objective of this study was to assess the risk factors associated with stunting, wasting, and underweight of children in the Tigray region. Methods. The information collected from 1077 children born 5 years before the survey was considered in the analysis. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was fitted to identify significant risk factors associated with stunting, wasting, and underweight. Results. Male children and rural born were having a higher burden of both severe and moderate stunting, wasting, and underweight than females and urban born. Among male children, 27.6%, 4.10%, and 14.2% of them were stunted, wasted, and underweight, respectively. Protected drinking water (odds ratio (OR) = 0.68; 95% confidence interval (CI): (0.50, 0.92)) was associated with stunting. Maternal age at birth less than 20 years (OR = 0.66; 95% CI: (0.45, 0.97)) and being male (OR = 2.04; 95% CI: (1.13, 3.68)) were associated with high risk of underweight. No antenatal care follow-up (OR = 2.20; 95% CI: (1.04, 4.64)) was associated with wasting, while the poor wealth index, diarrhea, low weight at birth (<2.5 kg), lower age of a child, and 3 or more under-five children in a household were significantly associated with stunting, wasting, and underweight. Conclusions. Being born in rural, being male, unprotected drinking water, smaller weight at birth, no antenatal follow-ups, diarrhea, and poor household wealth were factors associated with increased stunting, wasting, and underweight. Thus, interventions that focus on utilization of antenatal care services, improving household wealth, and improving access to protected drinking water were required by policymakers to decrease stunting, wasting, and underweight more rapidly.

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Simultaneous quantile regression and determinants of under-five severe chronic malnutrition in Ghana.

10.21203/rs.2.14233/v1 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Justice Moses K. Aheto

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Quantile Regression ◽

Significant Risk ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Public Health Issue ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Chronic Malnutrition ◽

Severe Stunting ◽

Under Five ◽

The Impact

Abstract Background Under-five malnutrition is a major public health issue contributing to mortality and morbidity, especially in developing countries like Ghana where the rates remain unacceptably high. Identification of critical risk factors of under-five malnutrition using appropriate and advanced statistical methods can help formulate appropriate health programmes and policies aimed at achieving the United Nations SDG Goal 2 target 2. This study attempts to develop a simultaneous quantile regression, an in-depth statistical model to identify critical risk factors of under-five severe chronic malnutrition (severe stunting).Methods Based on the nationally representative data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, height-for-age z-score (HAZ) was estimated. Multivariable simultaneous quantile regression modelling was employed to identify critical risk factors for severe stunting based on HAZ (a measure of chronic malnutrition in populations). Quantiles of HAZ with focus on severe stunting were modelled and the impact of the risk factors determined. Significant test of the difference between slopes at different selected quantiles of severe stunting and other quantiles were performed. A quantile regression plots of slopes were developed to visually examine the impact of the risk factors across these quantiles.Results Data on a total of 2716 children were analysed out of which 144 (5.3%) were severely stunted. The models identified child level factors such as type of birth, sex, age, place of delivery and size at birth as significant risk factors of under-five severe stunting. Maternal and household level factors identified as significant predictors of under-five severe stunting were maternal age and education, maternal national health insurance status, household wealth status, and number of children under-five in households. Highly significant differences exist in the slopes between 0.1 and 0.9 quantiles. The quantile regression plots for the selected quantiles from 0.1 to 0.9 showed substantial differences in the impact of the covariates across the quantiles of HAZ considered.Conclusion Critical risk factors that can aid formulation of child nutrition and health policies and interventions that will improve child nutritional outcomes and survival were identified. Modelling under-five severe stunting using multivariable simultaneous quantile regression models could be beneficial to addressing the under-five severe stunting.

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Institutional delivery and associated factors in rural communities of Central Gondar Zone, Northwest Ethiopia

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0255079 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 16 (7) ◽

pp. e0255079

Author(s):

Adane Nigusie ◽

Telake Azale ◽

Mezgebu Yitayal ◽

Lemma Derseh

Keyword(s):

Logistic Regression ◽

Antenatal Care ◽

Associated Factors ◽

Institutional Delivery ◽

Health Workers ◽

Wealth Index ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Middle Level ◽

Systematic Sampling ◽

Wealth Status

Introduction Institutional delivery has been considered as one of the important strategies to improve maternal and child health and significantly reduces birth-related complications. However, it is still low in developing countries though there are some improvements. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of institutional delivery and associated factors in the study area. Methods A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted. A multistage systematic sampling technique was used to select 1,394 study participants. We collected data from 18–48 years old women by using a structured questionnaire. Binary logistic regression was performed to identify factors at 95% confidence level. Results The mean age of respondents was 30 (±0.15). The wealth status of 33.48% respondents was poor and 33.33% rich. The prevalence of institutional delivery was 58.17% (95% CI: 55.57%, 60.77%). Multivariable logistic regression showed that demographic factors: women age (≥35years) (AOR = 1.43; 95% CI 1.04, 1.96), having a family size of less than five (AOR = 4.61; 95% CI 3.34, 6.34), having family discussion (AOR = 4.05; 95% CI 2.74, 5.97), distance from the nearby clinic (≤30min) (AOR = 2.92; 95% CI 1.53, 5.58) and decision power about place of delivery (AOR = 2.50; 95% CI 1.56, 4.01); socio-economic factors: husband’s educational status of primary school (AOR = 1.64; 95% CI 1.19, 2.24), middle level household wealth index (AOR = 1.78; 95% CI 1.25, 2.54) and rich level household wealth index (AOR = 2.01; 95% CI 1.42, 2.86); and programmatic factors: antenatal care visit during their recent pregnancy (AOR = 1.86;95% CI 1.16, 2.97) were affects institutional delivery positively. Whereas bad behavior of health workers (AOR = 0.27; 95% CI 0.19, 0.39) negatively affects institutional delivery. Conclusion Institutional delivery was low in the study area. This study implies that strengthening family discussion and up taking antenatal care services in regular ways are a few of the suggested recommendations.

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Prevalence and Socioeconomic Factors of Diabetes and High Blood Pressure Among Women in Kenya: A Cross-Sectional Study

Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health ◽

10.1007/s44197-021-00004-6 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (4) ◽

pp. 397-404

Author(s):

Sanni Yaya ◽

Ziad El-Khatib ◽

Bright Opoku Ahinkorah ◽

Eugene Budu ◽

Ghose Bishwajit

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Socioeconomic Factors ◽

High Blood Pressure ◽

Wealth Index ◽

Wealth Quintile ◽

Household Wealth ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

African Countries ◽

Wealth Status ◽

Cross Sectional

Abstract Background The emerging burden of high blood pressure (HBP) and diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa will create new challenges to health systems in African countries. There is a scarcity of studies that have reported associations of diabetes and HBP with socioeconomic factors on women within the population. We assessed the prevalence and socioeconomic factors of diabetes and high blood pressure among women in Kenya. Methods We analysed cross-sectional data from the 2014 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey. Subjects were women aged 15–49 years. Self-reported status of HBP and diabetes was used to measure the prevalences. The association between educational and wealth index with HBP and diabetes was assessed by multivariable binary logistic regression. Results The prevalences of self-reported HBP and diabetes were 9.4% and 1.3%, respectively. Women with secondary [aOR = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.15–2.02] and primary [aOR = 1.48; 95% CI = 1.15–1.92] levels of education were more likely to report having HBP, compared to those with no formal education. However, there was no significant association between educational level and self-reported diabetes. In terms of wealth quintile, we found that women with higher wealth quintile were more likely to report having HBP and diabetes compared to those with poorest wealth quintile. Specifically, the highest odds of self-reported HBP was found among women with richest wealth quintile compared to those with poorest wealth quintile [aOR = 2.22; 95% CI = 1.71–2.88]. Also, women with poorer wealth quintile were more likely to have self-reported diabetes compared to those with poorest wealth quintile [aOR = 1.89; 95% CI = 1.08–2.38]. Conclusion The prevalence of HBP and diabetes was low among women in Kenya. Household wealth status was associated with HBP and diabetes. No causation can be inferred from the data; hence, longitudinal studies focusing on health-related behaviour associated with NCDs are recommended. Proper dissemination of health information regarding the risk factors for HBP and diabetes may prove to be beneficial for NCD prevention programmes.

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