scholarly journals Kajian Hidro-Oseanografi Untuk Rehabilitasi Suaka Margasatwa Muara Angke – Jakarta Utara

2021 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 057-068
Author(s):  
Asep Irwan
Keyword(s):  
Field Survey ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
River Pollution ◽  
Wetland Ecosystem ◽  
A Value ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Natural Reserve ◽  
Mangrove Rehabilitation ◽  
Wildlife Reserve ◽  
Sediment Test

Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve (MAWR) is the smallest natural reserve area in Indonesia with a wetland ecosystem type, dominated by open swamp and mangroves, and greatly influenced by freshwater from the Angke River. Although small, this region plays an important role in protecting biodiversity, especially for mangrove ecosystems in Jakarta. However, this area has suffered severe degradation because of river pollution and decreasing salinity so that rehabilitation efforts carried out to maintain the presence of mangrove ecosystems. We asses the hydro oceanographic aspects, i.e. tidal conditions, sedimentation and bathymetry by conducting field survey and modeling. Based on the results, there is 0.35 m increase in the water level compare to previous period. The value of Formzhal 2.47 is obtained which indicates the mixed tide prevailing diurnal type, mainly because of the influence of the river, although sometimes their mixed tides with very different heights and periods. The tidal mounts in Muara Angke based on the Admiralty method are 0.94 meters. Then, from the results of the sediment test, it was found the type of mud sediment with a value of TSS between 23 mg/l - 74 mg/l. The result of this study is that the sustainability of the mangrove ecosystem in Muara Angke Wildlife Reserve depends on these three aspects. There needs to be mitigation efforts to reduce sedimentation and overcome freshwater immersion from rivers so that mangrove rehabilitation in this region can be successful.

scholarly journals Dynamic model of economic value of mangrove ecosystems Tangerang Coastal Area, Banten

2016 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 26-42 ◽  
Author(s):  
GILANG RUSRITA AIDA ◽  
YUSLI WARDIATNO ◽  
ACHMAD FAHRUDIN ◽  
M. MUKHLIS KAMAL
Keyword(s):  
Dynamic Model ◽  
Coastal Area ◽  
Model Simulation ◽  
Economic Value ◽  
Consumer Surplus ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Litter Production ◽  
Mangrove Species ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Mangrove Rehabilitation

Aida GR, Wardiatno Y, Fahrudin A, Kamal MM. 2016. Dynamic model of economic value of mangrove ecosystems Tangerang Coastal Area, Banten. Bonorowo Wetlands 6: 26-42. The purpose of this research is to estimate mangrove productivity through the production of litter; estimate the potential fisheries production through mangrove litter production approach; estimate the mangrove ecosystem value from potential fisheries from mangrove litter production, existing fisheries and aquaculture; determining a dynamic model of mangrove ecosystems value for fisheries and the aquaculture in coastal areas of Tangerang District, Banten. The study was conducted in May-July 2014, with the location of sampling conducted in the Kronjo Subdistrict, Tangerang District, Banten. The data required include mangrove vegetation characteristics, physical and chemical parameters of the aquatic environment, mangrove litter production, socio-economic data related to the utilization of mangrove ecosystem and secondary data related. The potential fisheries that supported from mangrove calculated by the method which developed by Mahmudi (2008), the value of fisheries existing and aquaculture obtained through consumer surplus approach. Based on the research, production of mangrove litter which consisting of Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia caseolaris reaches 3.47 g/m2/day or 12 492 kg/ha/yr. Coastal fisheries potential of the ecosystem can support 1134.01 kg/ha/yr with the value reached Rp 27 016 978.57/ ha/yr. The value of actual fisheries reached Rp 5442896260/ha/yr and aquaculture Rp 8 012 608/ha/yr. The result of dynamic model simulation shows that in the existing condition, the total value of mangrove use are not sustainable and continued to decline. While mangrove rehabilitation at least 2.27 ha/yr can maintain the sustainable the value of mangrove uses. Mangrove rehabilitation also needs to consider the composition of mangrove species to produce fishery potential that can be supported optimally and increase the total value of mangrove utilization.

scholarly journals Local indigenous strategy to rehabilitate and conserve mangrove ecosystem in the southeastern Gulf of Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
RONGGO SADONO ◽  
DJOKO SOEPRIJADI ◽  
ARI SUSANTI ◽  
Jeriels Matatula ◽  
EKO PUJIONO ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Remote Sensing ◽  
Remote Sensing Data ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Local Communities ◽  
Observation Data ◽  
Mangrove Forests ◽  
Similar Action ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Mangrove Rehabilitation

Abstract. Sadono R, Soeprijadi D, Susanti A, Matatula J, Pujiono E, Idris F, Wirabuana PYAP. 2020. Local indigenous strategy to rehabilitate and conserve mangrove ecosystem in the southeastern Gulf of Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 1250-1257.  The existence of local communities around mangrove ecosystems plays essential role to support the effort of conservation programs in this area. This study is aimed to investigate a set of situation faced by local communities in the southeastern Gulf of Kupang (SGK), East Nusa Tenggara Province which led to the rehabilitation of once degraded mangrove forests in SGK and the strategies to conserve the recovered mangrove forests. A case study approach was developed using purposive sampling to collect information regarding the historical situation of mangrove forests in SGK. Further, remote sensing method using multi-temporal observation data was used to investigate the changes in mangrove cover from 1994 to 2019. This study revealed that a series of situations became the fundamental of the success in retaining the existence of mangrove ecosystems in SGK. First, the negative impacts of mangrove degradation affected the communities badly in relation to their livelihoods in fisheries and marine sector as well as other environmental services. Then, this situation led to the emergent of a local champion to initiate mangrove rehabilitation efforts which firstly did not get attention from most of the communities. After some initial successes, the efforts of the local champion was then followed by other members of communities, triggering a bigger scale of mangrove rehabilitation. Having the mangrove recovered, the communities set of highly strict local indigenous rules in which every indigenous people who conducting illegal logging in the mangroves would be expelled from the village, while a large fine was given for outside people who did the similar action. Currently, more than 90% of respondents have understood the benefits of mangroves and derived advantages from it, particularly in improving their prosperity and security. The results of the success of mangrove rehabilitation and conservation in SGK was confirmed by the increasing extent of mangrove vegetation using remote sensing data. The case study of rehabilitation and conservation in SGK provided valuable learning for communities in other areas.

Species Density and Lead (Pb) Pollution in Mangrove Ecosystem, South Kalimantan

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 70-81
Author(s):  
Anang Kadarsah ◽  
Dafiuddin Salim ◽  
Sadang Husain ◽  
Marta Dinata
Keyword(s):  
Heavy Metal ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Ph Value ◽  
Coal Mines ◽  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Organic Content ◽  
Species Density ◽  
Pb Pollution ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems

Its crucial to get information about lead (Pb) heavy metal pollution from mining and oil palm plantation on species density in mangrove ecosystem, to anticipate its impacts. This study aimed is to compare the types and densities of vegetation in mangrove ecosystems allegedly due to mining in Setarap village, Tanah Bumbu Regency and oil palm plantations in Kuala Tambangan Village, Tanah Laut Regency. We also analysis the condition of waters (TDS, pH and DO) and organic content in sediments to acquire data from the South Kalimantan mangrove ecosystems. The results showed there were four species of true mangroves (Avicennia alba, Acanthus ebracteatus, Nypa fruticans and Rhizophora apiculate) could live well in the environment affected by mining or oil palm plantations. The species density for trees was low (933 ind/ha) for mangroves affected by coal mines, while those affected by oil palm plantations had higher densities (1,067 ind/ha). pH value of waters in affected area by coal mining showed more acidic value (pH 5.76) especially at the back, while those by palm oil plantations are more acidic (pH 6) in the estuary. Organic matter content in sediments affected by coal mines was in the range of 0.61-6.59%, while those affected by oil palm plantations showed higher values (0.12-2.19%). Lead heavy metal content (Pb) in waters affected by coal mines was 0.031-0.056 mg/L, while the area affected by oil palm plantations was of higher value (0.110-0.128 mg/L). Lead (Pb) levels in sediments indicate higher values than waters, which reach 3.512-6.046 mg/Kg (affected by coal mines), and in areas affected by oil palm plantations reaching 6.658-6.66 mg/Kg. The general conclusion is that vegetation densities in areas affected by coal mines are lower than oil palm plantations. The level of lead  (Pb) pollution in the sediments is higher than in the waters.

scholarly journals ANALISIS KESESUAIAN EKOWISATA MANGROVE DESA KAHYAPU PULAU ENGGANO

2016 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
pp. 64-73
Author(s):  
Desi Fitriana ◽  
Yar Johan ◽  
Person Pesona Renta
Keyword(s):  
Survey Methods ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Suitability Index ◽  
Ecological Suitability ◽  
The Village

The purpose of this study was to identify the potential of mangrove ecosystems as mangrove ecotourism objects and calculate suitability mangrove ecotourism in the village Kahyapu Enggano . This research was conducted using survey methods, measurements in the field and ecological suitability determination based on the multiplication of weights and scores obtained from any of the parameters consisting of five parameters: the thickness of the mangrove , mangrove density , types of mangrove , tidal and biota object . Mangrove ecosystem in the Village Kahyapu Enggano has the potential to be developed as an ecotourism mangrove . Based on the results, the results of IKW ( Travel Suitability Index ) at the stations I 60 % category S2 (Match ) , Station II 66 % category S2 (Match ) and Station III 71 % category S2 (Match ).

scholarly journals Fauna diversity, production potential and total economic value of mangrove ecosystems in Mentawir Village, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rochadi Kristiningrum ◽  
Abubakar M. Lahjie ◽  
MASJAYA ◽  
SYAHRIR YUSUF ◽  
YOSEP RUSLIM ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Economic Value ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Use Value ◽  
Production Potential ◽  
Annual Increment ◽  
Existence Value ◽  
East Kalimantan ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Total Economic Value ◽  
Direct Use

Abstract. Kristiningrum R, Lahjie AM, Masjaya, Yusuf S, Ruslim Y, Ma’ruf A. 2020. Fauna diversity, production potential and total economic value of mangrove ecosystems in Mentawir Village, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 1940-1953. Mangroves play important role in life. The benefits of the mangrove ecosystem consist of ecological and socio-economic values. However, it is a challenge to discern how the mangrove ecosystem provides a comprehensive economic value. This research is aimed to analyze the Total Economic Value (TEV) of mangrove ecosystems in Mentawir Village, North Penajam Paser District, East Kalimantan Province. This aim will be achieved by conducting fauna inventory, analysis of mangrove wood production potential, social-economic interviews, and infrastructure cost analysis as the inputs to calculate four elements (i.e. Direct Use Value, Indirect Use Value, Option Value, and Existence Value) to sum up the TEV. The research used a mixed-method combining both qualitative and quantitative methods. Fauna inventory was conducted using boat survey method and interviews with local fishermen. Data on mangrove wood production was obtained using the systematic random sampling method by establishing two plots with an area of one hectare for each plot to calculate mean annual increment (MAI) and current annual increment (CAI). The economic value of the mangrove ecosystem was calculated using market price values, replacement costs, and the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). The results of fauna inventory consisted of 3 species of mammals, 1 species of reptile, 16 species of birds, 25 types of fish, 8 species of crustaceans, and 7 species of mollusks. The economic valuation resulted in the contribution of direct use value with 39.56% in the form of wood (94,875,000,000 IDR) and fishery products (103,500,000,000 IDR); indirect use value with 53.47% in the form of breakwater (38,028,881,407 IDR), abrasion resistance (218,549,528,110 IDR), and carbon sequestration (11,580,313,067); option value with 6.92% in the form of biodiversity (34,690,085,038 IDR); and existence value with 0.05% (241,500,000 IDR). All these resulted in the total economic value (TEV) of the mangrove ecosystem in Mentawir Village of 501,465,307,621 IDR. Therefore, this value can be the basis for policymakers in managing natural resources so that the ecosystem is more protected and sustainable, and can continue to provide environmental services for the welfare of the community.

scholarly journals Society’s Participation Model For Mangrove Rehabilitation in Cempa District, Pinrang Regency

2019 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 9
Author(s):  
Nurul Azmi
Keyword(s):  
Mangrove Forest ◽  
Sampling Technique ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Mangrove Forests ◽  
Planning Stage ◽  
Working Groups ◽  
Level Of Knowledge ◽  
Mangrove Rehabilitation ◽  
The Government ◽  
Forest Rehabilitation

This study aims to determine: 1) The level of society support in the rehabilitation of mangrove forests. 2) Model ofsociety participation in the rehabilitation of mangrove forests. The population in this study was 721 people, a sample was72 people. The sampling technique used is proportional random sampling. Data collection using observation techniques, interviews, and questionnaires. Data analysis using descriptive interpretative. The results showed that the level of knowledge and society support about mangrove forest rehabilitation is good enough. The model of society  participation is that they are directly involved in the rehabilitation of mangrove forest starting from the planning stage, which is to provide aspirations in the form of concepts, ideas. Designing the concept to be implemented. Planting, they participates in the provision of seeds and planting. Establish working groups led by community leaders or chairmen of working groups. Maintenance, participate in mangrove csssare from the re-planting of mangroves that diaman dead and eradicate the pests that attack the mangrove seeds, and finally the Supervision, in this stage  they forbid anyone to remove, cut the mangrove that has been planted. The government also participates in the supervision and make the rule of giving sanctions to those who deliberately destroy the mangrove ecosystem.

scholarly journals KEANEKARAGAMAN DAN KELIMPAHAN MAKROZOOBENTHOS PADA EKOSISTEM MANGROVE DESA DARUBA PANTAI KABUPATEN PULAU MOROTAI

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 64-77
Author(s):  
Djainudin Alwi ◽  
Sandra Hi. Muhammad ◽  
Henderson Herat
Keyword(s):  
Relative Abundance ◽  
Diversity Index ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Natural Food ◽  
Ecological Diversity ◽  
Ecological Index ◽  
Quadrat Sampling ◽  
Index Analysis ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Secondary Consumers

Ekosistem mangrove berperan sebagai habitat berbagai jenis satwa, salah satunya yaitu makrozoobenthos. Makrozoobenthos berperan sebagai konsumen primer dan ada pula yang berperan sebagai konsumen sekunder atau konsumen yang menempati tempat yang lebih tinggi. Pada umumnya, Makrozoobenthos merupakan makanan alami bagi berbagai satwa perairan yang berukuran besar. Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis kelimpahan makrozoobenthos dan menganalisis struktur komunitas makrozoobenthos di kawasan ekosistem mangrove Daruba Pantai. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan November sampai Desember 2019 yang berlokasi di kawasan Mangrove Desa Daruba Pantai. Pengambilan data menggunakan metode sampel kuadrat (Quadrat Sampling) dengan ukuran plot 1x1 m2. Metode analisis data menggunakan analisis indeks ekologi seperti kelimpahan individu, kelimpahan relatif, keanekaragaman jenis, keseragaman dan dominasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukan kelimpahan individu makrozoobenthos tertinggi berada pada stasiun ke I yaitu 33,333 (Ind/m2) dan terendah berada di stasiun I dan II yaitu Polymesoda bengalensis 1,111 (Ind/m2). Sedangkan Kelimpahan Relatif tertinggi ada di stasiun II yaitu Episesarma (0,200 %) dan terendah ada di stasiun I dan II yaitu Polymesoda bengalensis (0,007 %). Hasil analisis indeks ekologi Keanekragaman (H’) stasiun I yaitu (2,146), stasiun II (2,158) dan stasiun III (2,131) termasuk dalam kategori sedang. Indeks Keseragaman (E) pada stasiun I berkisar (0,895), stasiun II (0,900), sedangkan pada stasiun III (0,925) termasuk dalam kategori tinggi. Indeks Dominasi pada stasiun I yaitu (0,132), stasiun II (0,132) dan pada stasiun III yaitu (0,130) termasuk dalam kategori rendah.THE DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF MACROZOOBENTHOS IN MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS AT DARUBA VILLAGE COASTAL PULAU MOROTAI REGENCY. Mangrove ecosystems play a role as a habitat for various species of animals, one of which is macrozoobenthos. Macrozoobenthos acts as the primary consumer and some have a role as secondary consumers or consumers who occupy a higher place. In general, Macrozoobenthos is a natural food for a variety of large aquatic animals. This research aims to analyze the abundance of macrozoobenthos and analyze the structure of the macrozoos community in the area of the Daruba Coastal mangrove ecosystem. This research was conducted from November to December 2019 located in the Mangrove area of Daruba Pantai Village. Retrieval of data using the method of quadratic sampling (Quadrat Sampling) with a plot size of 1x1 m2. Data analysis methods use ecological index analysis such as individual abundance, relative abundance, species diversity, uniformity, and dominance. The results showed the highest abundance of macrozoobenthos individuals were at a station I which was 33,333 (Ind / m2) and the lowest was at stations I and II namely Polymesoda bengalensis 1.111 (Ind / m2). While the highest relative abundance in at station II, Episesarma (0.200%) and the lowest are at a station I and II, Polymesoda bengalensis (0.007%). The results of the analysis of the Ecological diversity index (H ') of Station I, namely (2,146), Station II (2,158) and Station III (2,131) are included in the medium category. The Uniformity Index (E) at a station I ranges (0.895), station II (0.900), while at station III (0.925) is included in the high category. The Domination Index at a station I (0.132), station II (0.132) and at station III (0.130) are in a low category.

scholarly journals Composing biodiversity indicators for the conservation of mangrove ecosystem in Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam

2014 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 101-108 ◽  
Author(s):  
Choshin Haneji ◽  
Van Tu Do ◽  
Duc Loi Vu ◽  
Tuan Hung Duong
Keyword(s):  
National Park ◽  
Biological Diversity ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Convention On Biological Diversity ◽  
Biodiversity Indicators ◽  
Field Surveys ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Monitoring Of Biodiversity

Biodiversity indicators for the conservation of mangrove ecosystems of Xuan Thuy National Park were composed, taking into account the environmental, biotic, and anthropological factors, based on suggested indicators provided by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Relevant environmental, biotic, and anthropological factors, identified by bibliographic and field surveys, were ordered by Pressures, State, Benefits, and Responses categories following the guidance of the Biodiversity Indicators Partnership. Furthermore, the linked relationships among the indicators were identified for effective monitoring of biodiversity in Xuan Thuy National Park. Dựa trên các chỉ thị được gợi ý từ Công ước về Đa dạng sinh học, các chỉ thị đa dạng sinh học phục vụ công tác bảo tồn các hệ sinh thái rừng ngập mặn của Vườn Quốc gia Xuân Thủy đã được xây dựng, có tính đến các yếu tố môi trường, sinh học và con người. Các yếu tố môi trường, sinh học và con người có liên quan, được xác định bằng việc tổng hợp và đánh giá các tài liệu và các đợt điều tra ngoài thực địa, dưới trật tự các nhóm Áp lực, Tình trạng, Lợi ích và Đáp ứng theo hướng dẫn của Đối tác chỉ thị đa dạng sinh học. Hơn thế nữa, các mối quan hệ liên kết giữa các chỉ thị đã được xác định nhằm quan trắc hiệu quả đa dạng sinh học ở Vườn Quốc gia Xuân Thủy.

scholarly journals Regeneration capacity and threats to mangrove areas on the southern coast of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines: Implications to mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (8) ◽  
Author(s):  
AARON FROILAN RAGANAS ◽  
ANNALEE S. HADSALL ◽  
NELSON M. PAMPOLINA ◽  
STEFAN HOTES ◽  
DAMASA B. MAGCALE-MACANDOG
Keyword(s):  
Dominant Species ◽  
Avicennia Marina ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Regeneration Capacity ◽  
Southern Coast ◽  
Mangrove Species ◽  
Rhizophora Apiculata ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Sonneratia Alba ◽  
Ecosystem Rehabilitation

Abstract. Raganas AFM, Hadsall AS, Pampolina NM, Hotes S, Magcale-Macandog DB. 2020. Regeneration capacity and threats to mangrove areas on the southern coast of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines: Implications to mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation. Biodiversitas 21: 3625-3636. Regeneration capacity is important as it determines the fate of an ecosystem. This study assessed six mangrove areas in the southern coast of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines to evaluate their regeneration capacity status. Four mangrove ecotypes were delineated namely seaward, middle, landward and riverine zones at each mangrove ecosystem, where dominant mangrove species were identified and selected for regeneration capacity study. Three subplots measuring 1 x 1 m2 were laid within the five 10 x 10 m2 survey plots established per zone. The juveniles were counted and categorized according to their height classes, using linear regeneration sampling method; where: RCI (≤40 cm) considered seedlings; RCII (41-150 cm) as saplings; and RCIII (151-≤300 cm) as small trees. Potential threats both anthropogenic and natural were determined through key informant interviews. Seven dominant species were identified across ecotypes in all mangrove sites, namely Avicennia marina, Avicennia rumphiana, Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, and Xylocarpus granatum. RCI (seedlings) is the most abundant across mangrove sites irrespective of the dominant species. Fishpond operation within the mangrove stand is considered a major threat to the juveniles and most mangrove ecosystems. Therefore, protection and constant monitoring of these mangrove ecosystems are necessary to ensure regeneration success in the future.

scholarly journals Literature review: The contribution of mangrove ecosystem condition to mosquito population

2020 ◽  
Vol 202 ◽  
pp. 05016
Author(s):  
Arum Siwiendrayanti ◽  
Sutrisno Anggoro ◽  
Nurjazuli Nurjazuli
Keyword(s):  
Literature Review ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystem ◽  
Coastal Areas ◽  
Mosquito Population ◽  
Original Research ◽  
Inclusion Criteria ◽  
Exclusion Criteria ◽  
Mangrove Ecosystems ◽  
Review Form ◽  
Mosquito Breeding

Previous studies indicated that coastal areas are vulnerable for mosquito-borne diseases. Socio-economic limitations and tidal flooding result in sanitation problems for coastal settlements. Mangrove ecosystems grow on tropical and subtropical coastal areas which can be mosquito breeding and resting places. This study aimed to explore the evidence of the contribution of mangrove ecosystem conditions to mosquito population through a literature review. Articles collection was done by using Scopus, SpringerLink and EBSCO databases. The inclusion criteria in selecting articles to be reviewed are publications in 2010-2020 and containing the words "mangrove" and "mosquito" in the tittle. The exclusion criteria were article in press status, review form (non-original research), retracted status, and the unrelated topics. It was obtained 6 articles that met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Evidence of the association between the dynamics of the mangrove ecosystem and mosquito density is inconsistent. Following future study is needed to confirm and clarify the results of this review, using methodologies and confounding controls that are appropriate both epidemiologically, spatially, and experimentally.

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