scholarly journals Historical development of the pharmaceutical industry in Spain prior to Transition

2021 ◽  
Vol 87 (87(03)) ◽  
pp. 323-330
Author(s):  
Raúl Rodríguez Nozal
Keyword(s):  
Pharmaceutical Industry ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Max Weber ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Central European ◽  
The North ◽  
Northern Areas ◽  
The Mediterranean ◽  
The 19Th Century

Max Weber (1864-1920), in his classic Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus, tried to justify the unequal industrial development of the different European countries based on the religious division of the continent as result of the Lutheran Reformation; According to their approach, the establishment of Protestantism in the north and centre and Catholicism in the south became the northern areas prosperous and the southern areas depressed, encouraging a tendency in the Protestant countries towards factory work, in opposition to the Catholic preference for craftsmanship. As far as the pharmaceutical industry was concerned, this approach led to two different models: the Central European model, Protestant-inspired, and the Mediterranean model, established in mainly Catholic countries such as Spain. The pharmaceutical industry was the driving force behind the new therapeutics that emerged during the 19th century, and it did so by acting on the two fundamental components of the drug: composition and presentation; while the Central European and Anglo-Saxon countries were inclined to promote the composition, the Mediterranean pharmaceutical industry channelled its efforts towards the final consumer product, the “pharmaceutical speciality”. Taking this framework into account, our intention is to offer a general overview of the Spanish pharmaceutical industry prior to the Transition, based on a series of stages ranging from the emergence of drugstore pharmacies in the mid-19th century to the establishment of pharmaceutical laboratories during Franco’s regime, including the classification of what we know as industrial medicines (“secret remedies”, “specific” and “pharmaceutical specialities”), their legal recognition (Stamp Act and health registration), their raw materials and main pharmaceutical forms.

Barbary States

2021 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Effective Means ◽  
State Governments ◽  
North African ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
The North ◽  
The Mediterranean ◽  
The Many ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Barbary States

The North African states of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco, which, until the 19th century, Europeans collectively referred to as the “Barbary States,” first came into existence with the spread of Islam across the northern African coast and into the Iberian Peninsula from the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century. Over the following eight centuries, these small states on the edges of the Mediterranean world employed a mix of trade and privateering (often labeled piracy) to sustain their economies. Based on religious dictate, Barbary privateers sailed against Christian nations who failed to negotiate a treaty with the Barbary States. Once captured, Christians were sold into slavery in the North African nations. Although commonly referred to as “pirates,” the Barbary ships might more properly be referred to as “privateers” or “corsairs.” While many of these ships were privately held, they operated with the sanction of the Barbary governments, lending a legitimacy to their activity that the term pirate denies them. The practice of privateering was recognized by states throughout the world as legal until 1856, when privateering was abolished under the Declaration of Paris. It was on this premise that the Barbary States, primarily Algeria and Morocco, sailed the Mediterranean in search of wealth. These raids supplied these North African states with both treasure and captives. The crews and state governments split the spoils of the raids, while captive crewmen found themselves on the auction block and sold into slavery throughout North Africa. Captives with few skills often ended up working in the quarries or shipyards. Seamen trained in a trade often found themselves in cities working at their craft. Those sailors who converted to Islam were able to return to sea as crewmen aboard the Barbary corsairs. Officers on the captured vessels were often placed on parole, reflecting similar European practices, provided they paid a monthly fee for their limited freedom. For the European powers, the threat of the Barbary States was best managed through a series of yearly tributes to maintain safe passage for their ships. While the many European navies were more than a match for the North African forces, most European powers deemed annual payment the most effective means for dealing with these North African states. Following the Napoleonic Wars and a series of conflicts with the newly independent United States, the Barbary raids were finally terminated in the early 19th century, culminating with the French conquest of Algeria in 1830.

A COMPARATIVE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES: A CENTRAL EUROPEAN CASE

2010 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 6-14
Author(s):  
Béla Mester
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
National Identities ◽  
European Countries ◽  
National Cultures ◽  
Central European ◽  
Latin Language ◽  
The 19Th Century

The paper analyses a well‐known phenomenon, that of the 19th century Central European so‐called “national philosophies”. However, the philosophical heritages of the Central European countries have their roles in the national identities; historians of philosophy in these countries know; our philosophies have common institutional roots with our neighbours. The paper deadlines paradigmatic problems from the Hungarian and Slovakian philosophy: the Latin language in philosophy, the different role of Kantianism and Hegelianism in the national cultures, and the problems of canonisation. Vengrų ir slovakų nacionalinių filosofijų komparatyvistinė istoriografija: Vidurio Europos atvejis Santrauka Straipsnyje tyrinėjamas gerai žinomas fenomenas, XIX a. Vidurio Europoje vadinamas „nacionalinėmis filosofijomis“. Kad ir kaip būtų, filosofiniai Vidurio Europos valstybių palikimai turi įtakos nacionaliniams tapatumams, ir tai žino šių valstybių filosofijos istorikai. Mūsų ir mūsų kaimynų filosofijos turi bendrąsias paprotines šaknis. Straipsnyje brėžiama paradigminių vengrų ir slovakų filosofijos problemų perskyra pagal lotynų kalbą filosofijoje, skirtingą kantizmo ir hėgelizmo vaidmenį tautinėse kultūrose bei kanonizacijos problemas. Reikšminiai žodžiai: kanonizacija, Vidurio Europos filosofijos, hėgelizmas, vengrų filosofija, kantizmas, lotynų kalba filosofijoje, tautinis tapatumas, „nacionalinės filosofijos“, slovakų filosofija.

scholarly journals Juridische Soziologien

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Doris Schweitzer
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Max Weber ◽  
Emile Durkheim ◽  
Private Law ◽  
Social Phenomenon ◽  
Problematic Relationship ◽  
Legal Perspective ◽  
The Face ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The 19Th Century

Why did the subject of law play a central role in sociology as it emerged? And why is this no longer the case today? This study explains this transformation of the sociological interest in law by means of a genealogical investigation into the mutual references between the jurisprudence of private law and sociology: the way in which, from a legal perspective starting in the 19th century, law has been addressed as a social phenomenon in the face of concrete problems is reflected in the early sociologies of Émile Durkheim, Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber. This has led to a mutual demarcation, which places law and sociology in a problematic relationship to each other for the future.

scholarly journals Piśmiennictwo religijne Tatarów Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego jako oryginalne źródło do badań polszczyzny północnokresowej

2018 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 85-110
Author(s):  
Joanna Kulwicka-Kamińska
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Slavic Languages ◽  
The North ◽  
Religious Writings ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
Polish Language ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Linguistic Analyses ◽  
The 19Th Century

The religious writings of the Tatars constitute a valuable source for philological research due to the presence of heretofore unexplored grammatical and lexical layers of the north borderland Polish language of the 16th-20th centuries and due to the interference-related and transfer-related processes in the context of Slavic languages and Slavic-Oriental contacts. Therefore the basis for linguistic analyses is constituted by one of the most valuable monuments of this body of writing – the first translation of the Quran into a Slavic language in the world (probably representing the north borderland Polish language), which assumed the form of a tefsir. The source of linguistic analyses is constituted by the Olita tefsir, which dates back to 1723 (supplemented and corrected in the 19th century). On the basis of the material that was excerpted from this work the author presents both borderland features described in the subject literature and tries to point the new or only sparsely confirmed facts in the history of the Polish language, including the formation of the north borderland Polish language on the Belarusian substrate. Research involves all levels of language – the phonetic-phonological, morphological, syntactic and the lexical-semantic levels.

A history of early household economics: Improving the family’s contribution to industrial production and rationalizing family consumption

2020 ◽  
Vol 72 (4) ◽  
pp. 985-1005
Author(s):  
Miriam Bankovsky
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
North American ◽  
Industrial Production ◽  
Household Economics ◽  
Social Good ◽  
The North ◽  
History Of ◽  
American Consumer ◽  
Family Consumption ◽  
The 19Th Century

Abstract This article contributes to our knowledge of two early phases in the history of household economics. The first is represented by the 19th-century theory of Alfred Marshall and the second by the interwar theories of several North American consumer economists (Hazel Kyrk, Elizabeth Hoyt, and Margaret Reid). The aim is to present the analytical focus and accounts of social good that animated these phases. Since Marshall’s focus was on improving industrial production, his family economics explained how the Victorian family could improve the labour it contributed to industry. But the North American consumer economists sought to improve family consumption. Regarding ethics, 19th-century families were to cultivate an industrious and altruistic character. But the consumer economists thought families needed protection from producer fraud, along with living standards that expressed their individuality. Early household economics also accepted the gendered family form that had accompanied these developments, rejecting more ‘activist’ conceptions.

Kisikongo (Bantu, H16a) present-future isomorphism

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 251-288
Author(s):  
Sebastian Dom ◽  
Gilles-Maurice de Schryver ◽  
Koen Bostoen
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Future Tense ◽  
Future Time ◽  
Semantic Extension ◽  
The North ◽  
Bantu Language ◽  
The Future ◽  
Identical Construction ◽  
Present Tense ◽  
The 19Th Century

Abstract The North-Angolan Bantu language Kisikongo has a present tense (Ø-R-ang-a; R = root) that is morphologically more marked than the future tense (Ø-R-a). We reconstruct how this typologically uncommon tense-marking feature came about by drawing on both historical and comparative evidence. Our diachronic corpus covers four centuries that can be subdivided in three periods, viz. (1) mid-17th, (2) late-19th/early-20th, and (3) late-20th/​early-21st centuries. The comparative data stem from several present-day languages of the “Kikongo Language Cluster.” We show that mid-17th century Kisikongo had three distinct constructions: Ø-R-a (with present progressive, habitual and generic meaning), Ø-R-ang-a (with present habitual meaning), and ku-R-a (with future meaning). By the end of the 19th century the last construction is no longer attested, and both present and future time reference are expressed by a segmentally identical construction, namely Ø-R-a. We argue that two seemingly independent but possibly interacting diachronic evolutions conspired towards such present-future isomorphism: (1) the semantic extension of an original present-tense construction from present to future leading to polysemy, and (2) the loss of the future prefix ku-, as part of a broader phenomenon of prefix reduction, inducing homonymy. To resolve the ambiguity, the Ø-R-ang-a construction evolved into the main present-tense construction.

A Comment on the Windsor Site, Jamaica

1954 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
pp. 173-174
Author(s):  
C. S. Cotter
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
North Coast ◽  
Interesting Article ◽  
The North ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Hill ◽  
Local Research

In Marian DeWolf's recent interesting article on Jamaica archaeology she refers to an earthwork and trench as Windsor Fort, built by the British in 1803 (DeWolf 1953: 236), citing Cundall (1915) as her authority. Actually Cundall mentions the fort but makes no attempt to suggest that its site was on Windsor Hill, which trench has always been known as Spanish Fort. From my local research, Fort Windsor was built on the sea shore, 1000 yards north of the hill, where up to a few years ago stone foundations still existed.The Windsor Hill site presents one of the most curious mysteries of the north coast, and in 1951 I excavated the hole with a view to a solution and moved and sifted about three tons of earth which had been thrown in during the early part of the 19th century.

Turkish-Dagestan Relations in the Light of the Russian Policy of Deterring the Population of the Dagestan Region from Resettling in Turkey (II Half of the 19th - Early 20th Century)

2020 ◽  
pp. 50-54
Author(s):  
T.Ch. Dzhabaeva
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
North Caucasus ◽  
The North ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article analyzes Turkish-Dagestani relations in the light of the policy of the Russian administration in the province. The reasons for the growth of Pro-Turkish orientation among the population of Dagestan in the second half of the 19th century, the policy of the Porte in this matter, and its decline by the beginning of the 20th century are noted. The author examines the complex of actions of the Tsarist administration to restrain the Dagestani population from resettling in Turkey-from conducting explanatory conversations with those who wanted to relocate and monitoring the relocation “through their fingers”, to direct prohibitions. The features of the migration movement of representatives of the peoples of Dagestan that distinguished it from the migration movement among other peoples of the North Caucasus are revealed.

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