Identification and Characterization of an Early Leaf Senescence Gene ELS1 in Soybean

Early leaf senescence phenotype in soybean could be helpful to shorten the maturation period and prevent green stem disorder. From a high-density mutation library, we identified two early leaf senescence soybean mutant lines, els1-1 (early leaf senescence 1) and els1-2. The chlorophyll contents of both els1-1 and els1-2 were low in pre-senescent leaves. They degraded rapidly in senescent leaves, revealing that ELS1 is involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis during leaf development and chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence. The causal mutations in els1 were identified by next-generation sequencing-based bulked segregant analysis. ELS1 encodes the ortholog of the Arabidopsis CaaX-like protease BCM1, which is localized in chloroplasts. Soybean ELS1 was highly expressed in green tissue, especially in mature leaves. The accumulation of photosystem I core proteins and light-harvesting proteins in els1 was low even in pre-senescent leaves, and their degradation was accelerated during leaf senescence. These results suggest that soybean ELS1 is involved in both chlorophyll synthesis and degradation, consistent with the findings in Arabidopsis BCM1. The gene els1, characterized by early leaf senescence and subsequent early maturation, does not affect the flowering time. Hence, the early leaf senescence trait regulated by els1 helps shorten the harvesting period because of early maturation characteristics. The els1-1 allele with weakly impaired function of ELS1 has only a small effect on agricultural traits and could contribute to practical breeding.

Soybean Nodulation Response to Cropping Interval and Inoculation in European Cropping Systems

To support the adaption of soybean [Glycine max (L) Merrill] cultivation across Central Europe, the availability of compatible soybean nodulating Bradyrhizobia (SNB) is essential. Little is known about the symbiotic potential of indigenous SNB in Central Europe and the interaction with an SNB inoculum from commercial products. The objective of this study was to quantify the capacity of indigenous and inoculated SNB strains on the symbiotic performance of soybean in a pot experiment, using soils with and without soybean history. Under controlled conditions in a growth chamber, the study focused on two main factors: a soybean cropping interval (time since the last soybean cultivation; SCI) and inoculation with commercial Bradyrhizobia strains. Comparing the two types of soil, without soybean history and with 1–4 years SCI, we found out that plants grown in soil with soybean history and without inoculation had significantly more root nodules and higher nitrogen content in the plant tissue. These parameters, along with the leghemoglobin content, were found to be a variable among soils with 1–4 years SCI and did not show a trend over the years. Inoculation in soil without soybean history showed a significant increase in a nodulation rate, leghemoglobin content, and soybean tissue nitrogen concentration. The study found that response to inoculation varied significantly as per locations in soil with previous soybean cultivation history. An inoculated soybean grown on loamy sandy soils from the location Müncheberg had significantly more nodules as well as higher green tissue nitrogen concentration compared with non-inoculated plants. No significant improvement in a nodulation rate and tissue nitrogen concentration was observed for an inoculated soybean grown on loamy sandy soils from the location Fehrow. These results suggest that introduced SNB strains remained viable in the soil and were still symbiotically competent for up to 4 years after soybean cultivation. However, the symbiotic performance of the SNB remaining in the soils was not sufficient in all cases and makes inoculation with commercial products necessary. The SNB strains found in the soil of Central Europe could also be promising candidates for the development of inoculants and already represent a contribution to the successful cultivation of soybeans in Central Europe.

Comparative transcriptome analysis identifies genes associated with chlorophyll levels and reveals photosynthesis in green flesh of radish taproot

The flesh of the taproot of Raphanus sativus L. is rich in chlorophyll (Chl) throughout the developmental process, which is why the flesh is green. However, little is known about which genes are associated with Chl accumulation in this non-foliar, internal green tissue and whether the green flesh can perform photosynthesis. To determine these aspects, we measured the Chl content, examined Chl fluorescence, and carried out comparative transcriptome analyses of taproot flesh between green-fleshed “Cuishuai” and white-fleshed “Zhedachang” across five developmental stages. Numerous genes involved in the Chl metabolic pathway were identified. It was found that Chl accumulation in radish green flesh may be due to the low expression of Chl degradation genes and high expression of Chl biosynthesis genes, especially those associated with Part Ⅳ (from Protoporphyrin Ⅸ to Chl a). Bioinformatics analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes between “Cuishuai” and “Zhedachang” were significantly enriched in photosynthesis-related pathways, such as photosynthesis, antenna proteins, porphyrin and Chl metabolism, carbon fixation, and photorespiration. Twenty-five genes involved in the Calvin cycle were highly expressed in “Cuishuai”. These findings suggested that photosynthesis occurred in the radish green flesh, which was also supported by the results of Chl fluorescence. Our study provides transcriptome data on radish taproots and provides new information on the formation and function of radish green flesh.

Production of Betacyanins in Transgenic Nicotiana tabacum Increases Tolerance to Salinity

Although red betalain pigments (betacyanins) have been associated with salinity tolerance in some halophytes like Disphyma australe, efforts to determine whether they have a causal role and the underlying mechanisms have been hampered by a lack of a model system. To address this, we engineered betalain-producing Nicotiana tabacum, by the introduction of three betalain biosynthetic genes. The plants were violet-red due to the accumulation of three betacyanins: betanin, isobetanin, and betanidin. Under salt stress, betacyanic seedlings had increased survivability and leaves of mature plants had higher photochemical quantum yields of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) and faster photosynthetic recovery after saturating light treatment. Under salt stress, compared to controls betacyanic leaf disks had no loss of carotenoids, a slower rate of chlorophyll degradation, and higher Fv/Fm values. Furthermore, simulation of betacyanin pigmentation by using a red filter cover improved Fv/Fm value of green tissue under salt stress. Our results confirm a direct causal role of betacyanins in plant salinity tolerance and indicate a key mechanism is photoprotection. A role in delaying leaf senescence was also indicated, and the enhanced antioxidant capability of the betacyanic leaves suggested a potential contribution to scavenging reactive oxygen species. The study can inform the development of novel biotechnological approaches to improving agricultural productivity in saline-affected areas.

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF FALL ARMYWORM (SPODOPTERA FRUGIPERDA) IN MAIZE CROP

Fall armyworm is an important pest of maize crop and native of America. Fall armyworm distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of many countries in the World. Eggs, larva, pupae & adults are the 4 stages of life -cycle. Eggs are covered with grey -pink colour layer. Larvae are 35-90mm long in size. The size of male & female pupae are 1.3 to 1.5 cm & 1.6 to 1.7 cm. grey, light brown & silver colour wings are observed in fall armyworm. The larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda larvae feed by scrapping green tissue of leaves & grown up larvae feed large amount of leaf tissues. Window pane like damage should be observed on leaves area. Fall armyworm affects on leaf corn and all sweet tissue part of the maize crop. Deep ploughing before onset of rains & wide sowing practices is best cultural practices for the management of all armyworm. Using of sex pheromone traps @2traps/acre at the time of sowing & hand picking and squashing of eggs are also found effective to control fall armyworm. Spraying of azadirachtin 1 Ec @2ml/liters of water, Emmamectin benzoate 5 SG @0.5g/liters of water, Chlorpyriphos 50% + Cypermetharin 5% Ec. @2ml/liters of water, lambada-Cyhalothrin 5% EC. @2ml/liters of water should be found effective chemical control on armyworm.

Representative Hardwood and Softwood Green Tissue-Microstructure Transitions per Age Group and Their Inherent Relationships with Physical–Mechanical Properties and Potential Applications

A better understanding of wood form–structure–function relationships and potentialities can lead to an enormous pool of fascinating solutions and inventions. In this research advances from both the anatomical and the mechanical points of view, the principles, fundamentals and concept generators derived from the inherent relationship between green tissue-microstructure and physical–mechanical properties of two representative woody species. Specifically, a total of 120 small-clear samples cut from six (e.g., three per wood species) Eucalyptus globulus (i.e., hardwood) and Cupressus macrocarpa (i.e., softwood) trees were sampled and tested to determine the tissue transitions per age group (e.g., juvenile, mature and senile) in terms of density, area, roundness and sphericity of vessel elements, longitudinal tracheids and longitudinal/ray parenchyma cells. Moreover, the studied green tissue-microstructure transitions were compared and analysed with the corresponding physical–mechanical properties [i.e., green density, moisture content, modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE)] of each species, which in turn were acquired from 159 tests carried out according to the German Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN standards). The results herein show mature and senile wood tissues are more rigid and mechanically resistant than juvenile ones, which is partially influenced by the progressive increment in cell-wall thickness as the wood-tissue ages, and this process is of greater magnitude for the eucalyptus species. Indeed, this representative hardwood species was found superior in terms of mechanical resistance to the progression of stresses due to a complex porous vascular system that becomes stronger as the tissue-microstructure ages. The design principles underlying the natural architectures of both studied green tissues provide concept generators for potential biomimetic and engineering applications, e.g., eucalyptus species are suitable for structural applications, whereas the superior flexibility found in the cypress species could be well bio-mimicked into composite panels, where the balance between strength and rigidity is of high relevance.

Simulated Abiotic Injury Alters Yields of Southern Interspecific Hybrid Grape Cultivars

Climate change, including more volatile weather and longer growing seasons, is causing stress on grapevines (Vitis spp.). A change in harvest timing of wine grapes can have significant consequences. Thus, two methods (crop forcing and complete removal of green tissue) were employed to simulate abiotic vine injury. The harvest of bunch grapes in Mississippi occurs during July, a very hot month. ‘Miss Blanc’ and ‘Villard Blanc’ had four different crop forcing treatments imposed to determine yield amount and harvest timing. All treatments reduced yield. Harvest was delayed by 50 days, a potentially positive shift that was not enough to escape high temperatures. ‘Villard Blanc’ had no flower or fruit development after crop forcing treatments in May and June. ‘Miss Blanc’ yields were also significantly reduced by these treatments. Removal of green tissue to simulate injury from weather events such as frost, freeze, wind, or hail in both Mississippi and Oklahoma revealed that lost growth could reduce yields from 19% to 81%, which could influence grape grower management decisions.

Determinants of Green Brand Trust and the Mediating Role of Green Brand Satisfaction

This research attempts to examine how perceived green brand quality and perceived performance influences customers trust in green brands through enhancing brand satisfaction. Using a sample of 108 customers in Hong Kong who were observed buying green tissue products, we investigate the relationship of perceived green brand quality and perceived performance with green brand trust, and the mediating effects of green brand satisfaction on these relationships. The results show that perceived green brand quality and perceived performance positively contribute to green brand trust directly and green brand satisfaction is an effective mechanism through which perceived green brand quality and perceived performance promote trust in a green brand.