Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. at the Forefront of Pharma to Confront Zika Virus and Microbial Infections—An In Vitro and In Silico Perspective

The recent emergence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in Brazil and the increasing resistance developed by pathogenic bacteria to nearly all existing antibiotics should be taken as a wakeup call for the international authority as this represents a risk for global public health. The lack of antiviral drugs and effective antibiotics on the market triggers the need to search for safe therapeutics from medicinal plants to fight viral and microbial infections. In the present study, we investigated whether a mangrove plant, Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. (B. gymnorhiza) collected in Mauritius, possesses antimicrobial and antibiotic potentiating abilities and exerts anti-ZIKV activity at non-cytotoxic doses. Microorganisms Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 70603, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 43300 (MRSA), Salmonella enteritidis ATCC 13076, Sarcina lutea ATCC 9341, Proteus mirabilis ATCC 25933, Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778 and Candida albicans ATCC 26555 were used to evaluate the antimicrobial properties. Ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol and streptomycin antibiotics were used for assessing antibiotic potentiating activity. ZIKVMC-MR766NIID (ZIKVGFP) was used for assessing anti-ZIKV activity. In silico docking (Autodock 4) and ADME (SwissADME) analyses were performed on collected data. Antimicrobial results revealed that Bruguiera twig ethyl acetate (BTE) was the most potent extract inhibiting the growth of all nine microbes tested, with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.19–0.39 mg/mL. BTE showed partial synergy effects against MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa when applied in combination with streptomycin and ciprofloxacin, respectively. By using a recombinant ZIKV-expressing reporter GFP protein, we identified both Bruguiera root aqueous and Bruguiera fruit aqueous extracts as potent inhibitors of ZIKV infection in human epithelial A549 cells. The mechanisms by which such extracts prevented ZIKV infection are linked to the inability of the virus to bind to the host cell surface. In silico docking showed that ZIKV E protein, which is involved in cell receptor binding, could be a target for cryptochlorogenic acid, a chemical compound identified in B. gymnorhiza. From ADME results, cryptochlorogenic acid is predicted to be not orally bioavailable because it is too polar. Scientific data collected in this present work can open a new avenue for the development of potential inhibitors from B. gymnorhiza to fight ZIKV and microbial infections in the future.

De Novo Transcriptome Assembly, Functional Annotation, and Transcriptome Dynamics Analyses Reveal Stress Tolerance Genes in Mangrove Tree (Bruguiera gymnorhiza)

Their high adaptability to difficult coastal conditions makes mangrove trees a valuable resource and an interesting model system for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying stress tolerance and adaptation of plants to the stressful environmental conditions. In this study, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) for de novo assembling and characterizing the Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lamk leaf transcriptome. B. gymnorhiza is one of the most widely distributed mangrove species from the biggest family of mangroves; Rhizophoraceae. The de novo assembly was followed by functional annotations and identification of individual transcripts and gene families that are involved in abiotic stress response. We then compared the genome-wide expression profiles between two populations of B. gymnorhiza, growing under different levels of stress, in their natural habitats. One population living in high salinity environment, in the shore of the Pacific Ocean- Japan, and the other population living about one kilometre farther from the ocean, and next to the estuary of a river; in less saline and more brackish condition. Many genes involved in response to salt and osmotic stress, showed elevated expression levels in trees growing next to the ocean in high salinity condition. Validation of these genes may contribute to future salt-resistance research in mangroves and other woody plants. Furthermore, the sequences and transcriptome data provided in this study are valuable scientific resources for future comparative transcriptome research in plants growing under stressful conditions.

Diversity, biomass, covers, and NDVI of restored mangrove forests in Karawang and Subang Coasts, West Java, Indonesia

Suwanto A, Takarina ND, Koestoer RH, Frimawaty E. 2021. Diversity, biomass, covers, and NDVI of restored mangrove forests in Karawang and Subang Coasts, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 4115-4122. Indonesia has been recognized as the country with greatest diversity of mangrove species with significant amount of carbon sink and biomass. In few recent decades, mangrove forests have been deforested significantly. One of the solutions to deal with mangrove deforestation is through restoration. West Java north coasts are one of the areas that have experienced deforestation, however and mangrove restorations have been conducted mainly in Karawang and Subang coasts. Correspondingly this research aims to assess the mangrove diversity using index and biomass resulted from restoration program in those coasts. To assess the mangrove diversity in each coast on June 2021, 6 sampling stations containing 3 replicated sample plots of size 10 m × 10 m were located. In total 8 species with 1549 trees were been sampled. In Subang the order of mangrove species from common to less-common species were Avicennia marina > Rhizophora mucronata > Sonneratia caseolaris > Acanthus ilicifolius > Bruguiera gymnorhiza. While the order in Karawang was Avicennia marina > Rhizophora mucronata > Rhizophora apiculata > Sonneratia caseolaris > Bruguiera gymnorhiza. The mangrove diversity (H)’ was significantly different (p = 0.000, F = 2.216) with diversity in Subang Coast (average H' = 1.326, 95% CI: 1.15-1.5) was higher than in Karawang (average H’ = 1.063, 95%CI: 0.934-1.2). Estimated restored mangrove covers in Subang were 3.612 km2 and 0.46 km2 in Karawang. R. mucronata was mangrove species that has the highest biomass with the value of 1337.91 mg ha-1 and the lowest was A. marina with value of 14.3 mg ha-1. The results suggest that restoration areas in Subang and Karawang have significant contributions to maintain mangrove diversity, biomass, and covers.

Forest Structure of 26-Year-Old Planted Mangroves

The mangrove ecosystem in Bintuni Bay, West Papua, Indonesia has been sustainably managed for more than three decades for timber utilization. Since there are only few mangrove areas that utilized for logging in Indonesia, data on growth and forest structure of post-harvest mangrove forest could become valuable information as a reference for sustainable management on the ecosystem. This study conducted in a permanent plot (1.6 ha) which established and planted in 1994 using 5 dominant and commercial species in Bintuni Bay. Rhizophora apiculata has the best growth compared to other species, while Ceriops tagal experienced the poorest growth. From all trees individual, 24.27% were categorized as multi stem trees with maximum of 8 stems that could be occurred from one single tree and contributed to increase total volume of the stands up to 33%. Bruguiera gymnorhiza has the highest percentage of multi stem trees covering 65.87% of total trees individual. In general, forest structure was not significantly different in various spacing distance. Merchantable volume for 5 planted species at 26-year-old stand was estimated to be 310.99 m3 ha-1 with extractable biomass of 247.08 ton ha-1. Planted mangroves can provide sufficient standing stock for future utilization in managed mangrove forests.

Tingkat Regenerasi Ekosistem Mangrove Berdasarkan Kerapatan Seedling, Sapling Dan Pohon Di Perairan Sei Jang Kota Tanjungpinang

Tujuan dari penelitian ini untuk mengetahui tingkat kerapatan seedling (semai), sapling (pancang), pohon dan tingkat regenerasi ekosistem mangrove di Perairan Sei Jang Kota Tanjungpinang. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan Maret – Agustus 2019 . Penelitian ini dilakukan pada tiga stasiun yang ditentukan dengan metode purposive sampling, berdasarkan keberadaan ekosistem mangrove di Perairan Sei Jang Kota Tanjungpinang. Setiap stasiun dilakukan pengambilan data sebanyak 3 plot, dengan ukuran plot 10x10m untuk pohon, plot berukuran 5x5m untuk sapling dan 2x2 m untuk sub plot seedling. Hasil penelitian ditemukan empat jenis mangrove yaitu Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata dan Ceriops tagal. Nilai kerapatan pada stasiun 1 untuk pohon 1.033 ind/ha, sapling 3.200 ind/ha, seedling 30.000 ind/ha, pada stasiun 2 untuk pohon 933 ind/ha, sapling 2.667 ind/ha dan seedling 22.500 ind/ha dan pada stasiun 3 untuk pohon 1.333 ind/ha, sapling 3.333 ind/ha dan seedling 38.333 ind/ha. Tingkat regenersi mangrove pada semua stasiun pengamatan tergolong baik.

Structure Analysis and Study of Biological Activities of Condensed Tannins from Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam and Their Effect on Fresh-Cut Lotus Roots

Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam is a mangrove plant that spread in many parts of the world. Though mangrove plant polyphenols have been reported to exhibit many biological activities, little is known about mangrove plant tannins. To explore the application value of tannins from B. gymnorhiza, analyses on the structure and biological activity of condensed tannins (CTs) from Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam were carried out. The results from 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) and reversed-phase, high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) showed that the CTs were dominated by procyanidins, with a small quantity of prodelphinidins and propelargonidins; and that the monomeric constituents of B. gymnorhiza tannins were catechin/epicatechin, gallocatechin/epigallocatechin and afzelechin/epiafzelechin. The CTs were reversible and mixed competitive inhibitors of tyrosinase and the 50% inhibiting concentration (IC50) was estimated to be 123.90 ± 0.140 μg/mL. The antioxidant activities of CTs from B. gymnorhiza leaves were evaluated, the IC50 for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid diammonium salt) (ABTS) scavenging activities were 88.81 ± 0.135 and 105.03 ± 0.130 μg/mL, respectively, and the ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) value was 1052.27 ± 4.17 mgAAE/g. In addition, the results from fresh-keeping assays on fresh-cut lotus root reveal that CTs from B. gymnorhiza had excellent effects on inhibiting the activities of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD), protecting fresh-cut lotus root from the oxidation of total phenolics and malondialdehyde (MDA) content and slowing the increase in total phenol content (TPC) at 4 °C during the whole storage period. Therefore, CTs showed good effects against the browning of fresh-cut lotus root. Together, these results suggested that B. gymnorhiza CTs are promising antibrowning agents for fresh-cut fruits.

STOK KARBON DI ATAS PERMUKAAN TANAH PADA HUTAN MANGROVE SUNGAI AWAN KIRI KABUPATEN KETAPANG

Mangrove forests, often referred to as mangrove forests, brackish forests or tidal forests, is a transitional ecosystem between land and sea which are tropical or sub-tropical areas along the sheltered coast and river mouth. Mangrove forest is a coastal plant community dominated by several species of mangrove trees that are able to grow and develop during the tides in accordance with their tolerance to salinity, duration of inundation, substrate and beach morphology. Awan Kiri Mangrove Forest has a total area of 114 hectares including the area of Other Management Areas (APL) then seen from the density of the Mangrove Forest only has 92 hectares. This study uses a non-destructive survey method. Vegetation carbon stock calculation is carried out using vegetation biomass calculation approach. Vegetation biomass calculation based on the calculation of allometric equations. Calculation the value of stored carbon using the formula according to (SNI 7724:2011) the value of parent carbon content,amounting to 0,47. Bassed on the research that has been done, it is found that there are 185 individuals, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizpphora apiculata, Xylocarpus gerantum and Excoecaria agallocha. The biomassa content can be known in the 3 pathways to store 242,16 tons biomassa and the total biomassa content in 1210,8 tons/ha with an everage of 403,6 tons/ha. The carbon content is 569,06 tons/ha so that it gets an average total of 186,68 tons C/ha.Keywords: Carbon Stock, Ketapang Regency, Sungai Awan Kiri in Mangrove Forests.

Vegetative structure and zonal distribution of true mangroves in Shwe-Thaung-Yan coastal areas, Myanmar

The survey was conducted in the mangrove forests around the Magyi and Utto Creeks at Shwe-Thaung-Yan coastal areas in Ayeyarwady Delta region, April 2018. Transect lines were laid as lower, middle and upper, and quadrate plots based on Point Center Quarter Method (PCQM) P-DATA PRO were used. A total of 15 species of true mangrove was recorded. Rhizophora apiculata and Bruguiera gymnorhiza are the most dominant and distributed species in the study area. Followed by Bruguiera sexangulata, Cerop tagal and Rhizophora mucronata then remaining species. Zonation pattern of mangroves species as lower, middle, upper was also examined in study areas. Among than 1 species in Near Threaten (NT), 1 species in Critically Endangered (CR), 1 species in Endangered (EN) and remaining species are Least Concern (LC) had been considered according with IUCN red list. The environmental parameters such as water salinity and temperature, soil salinity, soil temperature and soil pH of study area were also recorded.