The Use of Draught Animals in Rural Labour

This study discusses scientific findings on the use of draught animals such as equids (i.e., horses, mules, and donkeys) and bovids (i.e., cattle and water buffaloes) in rural labours. Relevant peer-reviewed literature published between 1980 and 2021 was retrieved from CAB Abstracts, PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Scopus databases. Although animals were used to produce draught power since their domestication and are still being used for this purpose, mechanisation has markedly reduced animal labour demand in agriculture. However, the process was uneven across continents according to economic constraints, and draught animals are currently concentrated in small production units located on terrains that do not favour agriculture mechanisation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Generally, equids can work at rates similar to those of bovids or faster but can sustain the work for shorter periods of time. In addition, buffaloes possess tough hooves and resistance to disease that make them suitable for working in wetlands and clay soils. Draught animals allow a marked reduction of both GHG emissions and non-renewable energy consumption as compared with agricultural machinery. In addition, they may allow obtaining profits from otherwise non-usable lands. Therefore, their use should be promoted in rural areas where low investments are usually the only ones feasible, and the energy of the animals can be obtained at a low cost by feeding them harvest residues and by-products. However, more attention should be paid to the quality of human–animal interactions—due to the close contact between animals and humans while working—and to the welfare of draught animals when transported and slaughtered—due to the high prevalence of injuries they suffer when subjected to these practices.

Agrarian Marxism, Animal Geographies, and non-human labor in Democratic Kampuchea

Between 1975 and 1979, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) embarked on a genocidal program of sweeping economic, social, and political change. In an effort to modernize Democratic Kampuchea, as Cambodia was renamed, CPK officials forced the entire populace to clear forests; build dams, canals, and reservoirs; and grow rice in an effort to accumulate rapidly the necessary capital for industrialization. In doing so, upwards of two million people died from disease, hunger and malnutrition, torture, and execution. The broad coordinates of the genocide are well-established. To date, however, no scholarship has examined critically the role of non-human animals in the agricultural transformations initiated during the Cambodian genocide. Drawing on two bodies of scholarship, Agrarian Marxism and Animal Geographies, in this paper we examine the role of draught animals in the regime’s plans to build an economy around agricultural expansion and rice production for export. Specifically, we trace the new productive relationships into which Cambodia’s water buffalo and oxen became enmeshed, and the structures of violence within which these animals played an essential part. We find not only that the work of draught animals materially contributed to the CPK’s plans for state-building, but in the process, the new state–animal relationship became an exemplar of the idealized relationship between the CPK and its human laborers. We conclude that the human–animal relationship provides key insights into the mass violence that transpired in Democratic Kampuchea under the Khmer Rouge and to this end encourage future engagement with interspecies relationships in the Cambodian context and in genocide studies more broadly.

Changing Pattern of Agricultural Mechanization in Nalanda District of Bihar

In agricultural production, farm mechanisation is a very necessary input. The number of tractors has increased rapidly, and in recent years, the population of draught animals has decreased in Bihar. A study was conducted in Nalanda District of Bihar, to classify the trend of tractor use and their economics. Mechanization is one of the most striking and pervasive phenomena of our times. Unfortunately, its study has been neglected by the social sciences, which have not sufficiently recognized that while technology itself belongs to the field of the natural sciences, its far-reaching effects on social life make it a vital subject for study by the social sciences. Insufficient and high variable precipitation and low fertility are major constraints to agricultural productivity. This brings the role of irrigation facilities and use of fertilizers. India is witnessing growth in irrigation facilities. Wells, canals and dams are constructed to cater needs of farmers. However, there is a lot to be achived in this regard. Applaying fertlizes are increasing day by day. It increases production as well as productivity of the field. At the same time, there is rampat mechanization of agriculture. Thus, it reduces human efforts and increases production of the field.

SLAUGHTER OF THE DROMEDARY (SINGLE-HUMPED) CAMEL (Camelus dromedarius) FOR MEAT IN A SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENT OF NORTH-EASTERN NIGERIA

Monthly records on camels slaughtered for meat from 1982 to 1989 at the Maiduguri abattoir were collected and analysed to determine the seasonal and annual trends in slaughter and meat supply from the dromedary or single- humped camel (Camelus dromedarius). There were highly significant (P<.01) seasonal and yearly variations in the number of camels slaughtered. In any given year, greatest numbers were slaughtered by March-May Which resents the last stages of the long sahelian dry season. Lowest numbers were slaughtered towards the end of the rainy season. About equal numbers of males and females were slaughtered annually. In 1989 alone, up to 13% of the females slaughtered were pregnant. An average of 9,150 camels were slaughtered yearly giving an estimated carcass yield of about 2,596,397kg of camel meat per annum. Camels slaughtered within the three years of 1984/1986 represented about 61% of the total for the eight years. The period from 1983 to 1986 was another drought period in the sudano-sahelian West Africa. Attention should be given to our draught animals hitherto neglected so that their drought, meat, milk and other potentials could be exploited to the full benefit of our national economy.

DRAUGHT ANIMAL POWER UTILIZATION ON SMALLHOLDER FARMS IN KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

Asurvey on draught animal power (DAP) use on small holder farms in Giwa Local Government Area of Kaduna State was conducted during the 1988/89 farming season. A purposive sampling technique was utilized where all the 25 household heads who owned and used draught animals were sample. Structured questionnaire schedule was developed and used for data collection. The findings revealed that majority (88%) of the respondents were between the 20 and 29 years of age. While majority (92%) of the respondents started with a pair of work animals, only 4% started with two pairs. White Fulani (Bunaji) cattle was the popular breed among the respondents. The animal were used for achieving three different agricultural tasks. The constraints associated with animal power utilization include unavailability and high cost of implements, scarcity of feed during the dry season and animal disease.

Broom and Fraser’s domestic animal behaviour and welfare

The 6th edition of this book contains 42 chapters on one biology, ethics, sentience and sustainability; behaviour and welfare concepts; describing, recording and measuring behaviour; learning, cognition and behaviour development; motivation; evolution and optimality; welfare assessment; defence and attack behaviour; finding and acquiring food; body care; locomotion and space occupancy; exploration; spacing behaviour; rest and sleep; general and social behaviour; human-domestic animal interactions; seasonal and reproductive behaviour; sexual behaviour; fetal and parturient behaviour; maternal and neonatal behaviour; juvenile and play behaviour; handling, transport and humane control of domestic animals; stunning and slaughter; welfare and behaviour in relation to disease; different types of abnormal behaviours and the breeding, feeding, housing and welfare of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, fishes, deer, camelids, ostriches, furbearing animals, horses, other equids, draught animals, rabbits, dogs, cats and other pets and welfare in a moral world. The book is illustrated with many photographs and includes a much-expanded reference list, an author index and a subject index.

Welfare of horses, other equids and other draught animals.

This chapter will review welfare issues of horses on the following aspects: breeding, housing, surgery, illness, rising, training and whipping.

Documents from the Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation on the Problem of Safety of Horse Personnel in the Troops of the Central Front in the Spring - Summer of 1943

The article studies the organization of the Central front rear agencies’ work with horse personnel on the eve of and during the Battle of Kursk, one of the key events marking the turning point in the Great Patriotic War. Preparation included a set of organizational measures. For timely movement of troops, weapons, and other military property within the newly occupied defense lines, it was necessary to make the most efficient use of all available vehicles. The novelty of the scientific research is due to the fact that the problem under consideration has not received its proper coverage in national and foreign historiography. It draws on the documents from the Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation to sum up the activities of the rear services of the Central Front in providing livestock, horses used as draught animals, with food and medical care. Snow drifts, and later spring thaw, created serious obstacles to the movement of military and rear units of the newly formed Central Front to their deployment on the northern face of the Kursk Bulge. The retreating enemy destroyed roads and railways, bridges, and other facilities, which the newly liberated territories had to recover in time. Under these conditions, it was largely due to the use of draught animals (i.e. horses) at the disposal of the troops, that it remained possible to carry out rear and front-line transportations. The experience of the Great Patriotic War had drawn a line under the practice of mass use of cavalry in battle. Already in 1941–45, horses were mainly used by the rear services to move units and formations to hard-to-reach areas of deployment, to transport food, fuels and lubricants, medical equipment, etc., as well as for transportation of the wounded and sick to medical institutions. A significant part of army horses died on the battlefield, but, among non-combat losses, mortality from infectious diseases and exhaustion was recorded. As established, the loss of horse personnel in the rear happened largely due to irresponsible and negligent attitude, both on the part of individual officials and of the entire military formations of the Central Front.

Archaeozoological Studies at Konoplyanka, the Southern Trans-Urals

Konoplyanka is a fortifi ed settlement associated with the Sintashta culture and dating to 1920–1745 cal BC. The faunal sample was studied with regard to standard traits and markers of pathology, rather recently adopted in Russian archaeozoological studies. The results are relevant not only to herd composition and age at slaughter but also to the animals’ state of health. The analysis of pathologies provides information about the herders’ skills and the housing of domestic ungulates. Ethnographic data relating to the modern grazing management system in the same area and information received from herdsmen were widely used. This makes it possible to assess the carrying capacity of the land and to arrive at a more accurate reconstruction of the pastoral economy. Markers of osteophagy among the domestic ungulates are analyzed and the phenomenon is discussed in the context of settlement archaeology. The study showed that animal husbandry was the predominant subsistence strategy. Markers of animal pathology indicate a high level of herding skills. The cattle were used as draught animals. Osteophagy attests to places where animals were kept. The predominant system was homestead herding, all or most animals being likely kept within the settlement throughout the year.

Some Household Life Aspects at the Hospital-1 Bosporan Settlement (2017 Archaeozoological Data)

В статье приводятся результаты археозоологического исследования остеологического комплекса из неукрепленного поселения «Госпиталь-1» (IV–III вв. до н. э.) на территории Керчи (Крым, Россия). Обсуждается выборка костей крупных домашних копытных из кухонных отбросов, обнаруженных в двух сооружениях и необычной яме. Проанализирована природа зафиксированных на костях этих животных многочисленных патологических изменений. Выявленные последствия тяжелой физической нагрузки и костные травмы у взрослых и старых особей (рис. 1–3) свидетельствуют об эксплуатации коров, быков, вола и лошадей как тягловых животных. Предлагается реконструкция специфической хозяйственной ситуации на поселении, связанной с землекопными работами и предельно интенсивным использованием тяглового скота. The paper summarizes results of archaeozoological study of the osteological complex from unfortified settlement «Hospital-1» (the 4th–3rd centuries BC) in Kerch (Crimea, Russia). It discusses a sample of bones of large domestic ungulates from kitchen refuse discovered in two constructions and one atypical pit. The nature of numerous pathological changes on bones of these animals was analyzed. Impact of heavy physical workload and bone injuries identified on both adult and old individual animals (fig. 1–3) are indicative of the use of cows, bulls, ox and horses as draught animals. The reconstruction of the specific economic situation at the settlement associated with earth works and extremely intensive use of draught animals is proposed.