Direct brain recordings reveal continuous encoding of structure in random stimuli

The brain excels at processing sensory input, even in rich or chaotic environments. Mounting evidence attributes this to the creation of sophisticated internal models of the environment that draw on statistical structures in the unfolding sensory input. Understanding how and where this modeling takes place is a core question in statistical learning. It is unknown how this modeling applies to random sensory signals. Here, we identify conditional relations, through transitional probabilities, as an implicit structure supporting the encoding of a random auditory stream. We evaluate this representation using intracranial electroencephalography recordings by applying information-theoretical principles to high-frequency activity (75-145 Hz). We demonstrate how the brain continuously encodes conditional relations between random stimuli in a network outside of the auditory system following a hierarchical organization including temporal, frontal and hippocampal regions. Our results highlight that hierarchically organized brain areas continuously attempt to order incoming information by maintaining a probabilistic representation of the sensory input, even under random stimuli presentation.

Emergent categorization in the recognition of black and white paintings through conditional discrimination

Background The emergent categorization involving paintings by renowned painters and their corresponding names was demonstrated by previous studies. However, the results of these studies suggest that the colors of the pictures may have played a preponderant role, obscuring other aspects of the stimuli that could be more directly related to the style of each painter. To verify this possibility, the present study used the same methodology of Ferreira et al. to investigate the establishment of emergent conditional relations between categories composed of black and white paintings and the names of their authors. Method The procedure consisted of the training of relations between each of the ten paintings and an abstract picture, for each of the three painters Botticelli, Monet, and Picasso. Relations between each of the three abstract figures and the printed name of one of the painters were verified in sequence. Finally, tests of relations between five trained and five untrained paintings of each artist and the printed names were conducted. Results The participants’ performance suggests that the outcome was properly controlled by aspects pertinent to the paintings that belonged to each painter’s category. Conclusions The results reinforced the data obtained previously with colored pictures, suggesting that the process of emergent categorization involving artificial categories of paintings is robust. It also indicates possibilities for future investigations, for example, using stimuli of other artistic productions, such as sculpture and music.

Effects of coherence on speaker preference and rule-following

Rule-following is affected by multiple variables. A relevant aspect of rules regards whether they “make sense”, that is, the extent to which the instruction coheres with previously reinforced patterns of relational responding. The present study aimed to evaluate the influence of relational coherence upon rule-following. After mastering a particular set of conditional relations (e.g., A1B1, A2B2), the participants were exposed to two speakers, one of which would “state” relations that cohered (e.g., A1B1, A2B2) with the participant’s previous relational training and the other that would present relations that were incoherent (e.g., A1B2, A2B1). Then, rule-following was measured in a preference test in which the participant would have to choose which of the two speakers would provide instructions in each test trial. Results show that the participants preferred the coherent speaker to provide instructions and followed the rules presented by that speaker throughout the test. Coherence is discussed as a critical aspect of rule following and preference for particular narratives.

Linguistic Features Of The Conditional Field In Uzbek Language

This article discusses the functional-semantic field, the functional-semantic field, the characteristics of the form and content of language vocalization, conditional units, the relationship of conditional relations to other meanings, the relationship of mapping and boundary meaning, units from the core and periphery of conditional space.

Structural and semantic types of conditional sentences in the Altai language

We analyze the structural-semantic types of conditional polypredicative constructions in the Altai language. Conditional relations are expressed by monofinite constructions with an all-Turkic conditional-temporal form with =sa, analytical conditional forms with bolzo ‘if’ and a rare conditional-temporal form with =qažïn. The all-Turkic =sa form does not have an absolute temporal meaning: this meaning is communicated by the main clause, with its predicate commonly used in the future tense or imperative mood. The analytical conditional forms consist of the participial form and the verb bol= ‘to be, to become’ in the conditional mood, with personal formants in the first and second person and zero formants in the third person. The participial forms within an analytical form express the temporal meanings. We distinguish proper conditional and improper conditional constructions with different modal planes of the dependent clauses: irreal modality in proper conditional constructions and real modality in improper conditional ones. Improper conditional constructions include some temporal, causal, subordinate, and comparative clauses following the conditional construction model. Proper conditional constructions fall into potential-conditional and irreal-conditional subtypes according to their semantic and formal traits. Potential-conditional constructions denote possible events. However, irreal-conditional constructions denote events that could not, cannot, and will not take place. In potential-conditional constructions, the main predicates are represented by indicative, imperative, and optative forms, with the subjunctive mood used in irreal-conditional constructions. In Altai conditional constructions, the taxis dependence between conditions and consequences is defined by the possibility of two types of correlation (from three possible correlations), namely ‘condition before consequence’ and ‘simultaneous condition and consequence.

Inviting the stranger in: Intimacy, digital technology and new geographies of encounter

Digital technologies are profoundly reshaping how people relate to unknown others, yet urban studies and geographies of encounter have yet to adequately incorporate these changes into theory and research. Building on a longstanding concern with stranger encounters in social and urban theory, this paper explores how digital technology brings new possibilities and challenges to urban life. With examples ranging from GPS-enabled apps for sex and dating to sharing economy platforms that facilitate the peer-to-peer exchange of services, new practices mediated by digital technology are making many stranger encounters a matter of choice rather than chance, and they are often private as much as they are public. This paper examines these changes to develop a conceptualisation of stranger intimacy as a potentially generative form of encounter involving conditional relations of openness among the unacquainted, through which affective structures of knowing, providing, befriending or even loving are built. We offer an agenda for researching stranger intimacies to better understand their role in generating new kinds of social and economic opportunity, overcoming constraints of space and place, as well as generating dynamics of inclusion and exclusion, privilege and disadvantage. The paper concludes by considering what critical attention to these encounters can offer geographical scholarship and how an emphasis on digital mediation can push research in productive directions.

Teaching Chemistry Based on the Stimulus Equivalence Model

This study aimed to verify the effects of a procedure, based on the stimulus equivalence model, to teach naming 10 chemical elements, from their symbolic representations and their respective numbers and atomic models. Eight high school students participated. Four classes of stimuli were used: (A) name; (B) symbol; (C) atomic number; (E) atomic model of chemical elements. The following were performed: evaluation of the initial repertoire; teaching of conditional relations and testing of emergence of new conditional relations; evaluation of the final repertoire. From the teaching of three relations (AB, BC and BE), almost all participants presented at least 90% of correct answers (hits) in nine relations (BA, CB, AC, CA, EB, AE, EA, CE, EC); in the chemical elements naming (BD, CD and ED), seven participants obtained at least 80% of hits. The efficiency of teaching procedure for chemistry learning at the high school level has been verified.