Ecotourism Destination Assessment using Tourist Potential Index in Zhemgang Dzongkhag, Bhutan

Zhemgang is increasingly becoming a preferred destination for nature-based tourism with the increasing number of international visitors from 165 to 346 between 2013 and 2019. The attractions that contribute to the increasing number of visitors are 225,361.47 ha (94.17%) of area under forest cover, rich biodiversity, unexplored scenic beauty and unique Kheng culture. In the past years, five local standard hotels, five ecolodges and two homestays have added bed nights of international visitors from 420 in 2013 to 931 in 2018. This study was conducted to assessed 10 potential ecotourism destinations in Zhemgang on the basis of resource availability and preferential appeal by promoters for tourism resources using Tourist Potential Index (TPI). The TPI was found ranging between 17 and 31.75.The mean rank of the destinations varies between 1.47 and 9.47 and there is significance difference in resources appealed by the tour operators on resources availability in the destinations considered for this study; (χ2(2) = 229.07, p = 0.00). The TPI may be useful indicator in developing practical guidelines for tourism resources development in the region.

The First Record of Horned Lark from Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve – A New Record for Bhutan

The Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris) even though a widespread songbird species had not been recorded from Bhutan. The bird was observed in Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve in a recent trip to Gakiling, Haa. With this new record, the number of bird species found in Bhutan has increased to 739 species.

Effect of Blanching Duration and Drying Methods on the Proximate Composition of Green Chilies (Capsicum annuum L.)

Farmers in Bhutan practice hot water blanching and sun drying of green chillies as one of the preservation measures. The blanched dried chilli is known as ema shukam locally and is used in preparing various traditional cuisines. Blanching is done for 2-3 minutes by immersing in boiling water and drying in open sun. However, blanching and drying process lead to quality changes such as texture, colour, flavour, and nutritional value. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the proximate compositions of sun dried and oven dried green-blanched chillies. An experiment with two drying methods and two levels of blanching durations with three replications for each treatment were conducted to examine the proximate compositions of the dried and blanched chillies. Blanching duration of two minutes retained higher carbohydrates (x͂ = 31.78) than three minutes (x͂ = 26.08). However, the Mann-Whitney U test showed no significant effect of blanching duration on carbohydrate (U = 7.5, z = - .690, p > .05). Drying methods had significant effect only on fat content with oven drying retaining higher fat content (x͂ = 4) compared to sun drying method (x͂ = 2); (U = 2, z = -2.713, p < .01). Blanching for three minutes resulted in higher loss of Vitamin C content. The colour of oven dried chilli was dark brownish green even at lower temperature of 37 oC. Hot water blanching of green chillies for two minutes followed by sun drying produced desired colour of dried chillies.

Local Volume Equations and Tables for two Forest Management Units in Bhutan: An Attempt to Provide FMU Specific Estimate of Timber Volume for Sustainable Forest Management

This study developed tree species specific local volume equations and tables for Lingmethang and Rongmanchu Forest Management Units. The field work was conducted between December, 2019 and January 2020. Data was collected for five species (Schima sp., Ltihocarpus sp., Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Pinus roxburghii and Castanopsis tribuloides) for Lingmethang FMU and six species (Beilschmedia sp., Persea sp., Quercus sp., Alnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii and Cinnamomum sp.) of trees for Rongmanchu FMU. The height and diameter over bark were measured for every sample trees. Using the height and diameter, volumes for each sample tree was calculated and then the models generated were fitted with a minimum of 32 trees per species, which were destructively felled for the purpose. The models were run in R version 3.4.4. A total of 16 models were fitted and tested for each species. The selected models performed well with small deviation for individual trees.

Assessment of Variability of Foxtail Millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.] Genotypes

Analysis of genetic diversity and variability is an initial step for crop development in a plant breeding program. Thirty foxtail millet genotypes were evaluated for their ten agro-morphological traits viz. grain yield, days to heading, days to maturity, plant height, leaf length, leaf width, number of nodes per tiller, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and leaf blast during April to August season of 2018 at Kabre, Dolakha, Nepal. Clustering was done based on variability observed among the genotypes for all the ten traits by the average linkage method. The genotypes were grouped into six clusters. The shortest inter cluster distance between Cluster I and Cluster II was 17.63 and the longest was between Cluster IV and Cluster VI with 47.55. Cluster I had the maximum leaf blast score with the minimum leaf length. The Cluster II had the maximum grain yield and days to 50% heading and the number of nodes per tiller. The Cluster III was characterized by the maximum leaf length and leaf blast value. The genotypes grouped into the Cluster IV were characterized by the lowest value of days to 50% heading and 80% days to maturity and those of Cluster V had the maximum thousand-grain weight. The genotypes categorized into Cluster VI had the maximum plant height, leaf length, and panicle length. Cluster II and Cluster V were good because of their agro-morphological traits. The presence of a high level of diversity among the genotypes indicated their suitability for selection in crop breeding programs. Correlation analysis of genotypes having the maximum panicle length leaf area and higher plant height and shorter maturity period are pre-requisite for improvement in grain yield.

Assessment of Anthelmintic Resistance of Fasciola spp. against Flunil-L ® and Fasinash®

Fasciolosis caused by Fasciola spp. is recognized to be one of the major problems affecting health and productivity of cattle in Bhutan. Various anthelmintic drugs are used to treat and control fascioliasis in the country among which, triclabendazole and oxyclozanide are the most common ones. These drugs have been used for a very long time in the country and possibility of development of resistance to these drugs is high. Also, limited studies had been carried out to test their efficacies in the country. Therefore, this study was done to determine the prevalence of fasciolosis in cattle in Maedwang gewog under Thimphu Dzongkhag and assess the status of resistance of Fasciola spp. to Fasinash® and Flunil-L® drugs. A total of 218 faecal samples were collected from cattle and subjected to parasitological test using standard sedimentation technique. The animals positive to Fasciola were treated with Fasinash® (triclabendazole bolus) and Flunil-L® (oxyclozanide+levamisole suspension). The faecal eggs were analyzed 14 days after the treatment by Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test and the efficacy was calculated. The overall prevalence of fasciolosis in the study was 32.11% with a prevalence of 28.80% in Namseling and 36.56% in Khasadrapchu. The mean faecal egg count (epg) of Fasciola spp. detected in Namseling was 0.65 ± 1.53 SD and in Khasadrapchu was 1.03 ± 2.07 SD. There was no significant difference in the mean faecal egg counts in the two chiwogs (p > .05 at 95% confidence level). The overall efficacy of Fasinash® was 86.96% and for Flunil-L ® was 91.38%. Significant difference was observed between pre-treatment and post-treatment in both the treatment groups (p < .05 at 95% confidence level). However, the study implies development of resistance of Fasciola spp. to triclabendazole in the study area.

Record of the Critically Endangered Elongated Tortoise Indotestudo elongata (Blyth, 1853) at High Elevation, Bhutan

We report a record of a threatened tortoise species, Indotestudo elongata, in a cool broad-leaved forest in central Bhutan at high elevation. The tortoise was observed at an elevation of 1910 m asl, which is the highest elevation at which the species is recorded so far. This gives us an inference that this Critically Endangered species is now adapting to cooler regions at higher elevation.

Mineral Composition and Behaviour of Mammals at Natural Saltlicks in Jomotsangkha Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhutan

Natural saltlicks are used by mammal species mainly to supplement mineral deficiency playing critical role in animal ecology. There is information gap on the use of natural saltlicks by mammals in Bhutan. Nine natural saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Wildlife Sanctuary were purposively selected to fill this gap of information. The study aimed to assess mineral composition and ecological behaviour of mammals at natural saltlicks. Nine composite soil samples were randomly collected and nine camera traps were set up at nine saltlicks for a duration of 56 days from 2 January to 28 February, 2019. Data management and analysis were carried out using camerabase and R software. Potassium, phosphorus and sodium elements were found in the saltlicks. Camera traps yielded 419 independent events of 12 species under 10 families. Herbivores were most common (n = 390) and non-herbivores the least (n = 12). Wild dog was also captured licking salts (n = 1) which is least reported across the world. Mineral composition (r = 0.70, p < .05) and anthropogenic activities (r = 0.60, p < .05) were key factors affecting the visitation rate and ecological behaviour of mammal species. Disturbed saltlicks from Samdrupcholing Range revealed fewer individuals of mammals (n = 71) with disturbed ecological behaviour while undisturbed saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Range revealed higher individuals of mammals (n = 340) with undisturbed ecological behaviour. Therefore, anthropogenic activities at disturbed saltlicks call for planned monitoring.

Ecology of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) at Lingmethang, Eastern Bhutan

A study was carried out at Lingmethang to find out the ecological requirement for the growth of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) trees in Bhutan. It also aimed to determine the preferred hosts of Sandalwood in the study site and to map its habitat suitability in the country. Plot size of 20 x 20 m2 for trees, 10 x 10 m2 for shrubs, and 5 x 5 m2 for regenerations and herbs were used. Soil samples were collected by digging soil to 25-30 cm depth from each plot. PC-ORD software was used for finding the relation of the variable with seedling abundance. A total of 19 tree species under 14 families and 40 undergrowth species under 24 families were recorded in the areas where Sandalwood is growing naturally. Mallotus philippensis and Albizia sikkimensis were the co-dominant tree species with chirpine as the dominant tree. Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) was the most preferred host species of the Sandalwood seedlings followed by Murraya koenigii. Mature Sandalwood tree was found parasitizing on Desmodium sp. (Fabaceae). Slope was one of the most determinant factors for the growth of Sandalwood (r = .951, p < .05), but rainfall had greater influence even though negative (r = -.943, p < .05) in the valley. Soil Nitrogen did not have much effect on the seedling abundance but mature trees prefered Fabaceae as hosts. A total of 16 dzongkhags are suitable for plantation of Sandalwood. Among these, Zhemgang Dzongkhag has the maximum potential area (469.62 km2) and Punakha Dzongkhag has the least (2.88 km2).

Business to Business Marketing in Bhutan: A Case Study from Balam Gewog under Mongar Dzongkhag

The Commercial Agriculture and Resilient Livelihoods Enhancement Programme (CARLEP) and the Regional Agricultural and Marketing Cooperative (RAMCO) piloted the business to business (B2B) marketing model in 2018 to address smallholder farmers’ marketing issues in Eastern Bhutan. As the B2B pilot model is currently not functional, it is vital to understand the B2B model’s challenges to successfully replicate the interventions in other communities. The lack of follow-up studies on the B2B marketing model motivated the authors to investigate the model’s challenges for implementation in the country. This case study was based on six vegetable groups in Balam Gewog, Mongar, Bhutan. Primary data were collected through focus group discussions with six vegetable groups and in-depth interviews with key informants. Secondary data were collected from Gewog, CARLEP, and RAMCO. The results showed that the B2B marketing model adopted in Balam Gewog was a primary B2B marketing model – a linkage only for selling produce. Four critical issues with the B2B marketing model adopted in Balam Gewog were noted: (1) mismatch between vegetable production and collection schedule, (2) lack of quantity and quality specification of vegetables in the contract between vegetable farmers’ groups and the buyer, (3) inadequate support services, and (4) lack of monitoring by facilitating organisations after contract signing between vegetable farmers’ groups and the buyer. Accordingly, we recommend adjusting the collection schedule as per the production season, specifying contract clauses like quantity and quality of produce, improving support services, and monitoring business by relevant authorities.