The standardization of the Basque language

2007 ◽  
Vol 31 (2) ◽  
pp. 143-168 ◽  
Author(s):  
José Ignacio Hualde ◽  
Koldo Zuazo
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Written Language ◽  
Standard Language ◽  
Nationalist Party ◽  
Standardization Process ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Enormous Success

The standardization process of the Basque language presents some unusual characteristics. Although some of the first authors to publish in Basque in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries explicitly remarked on the difficulties brought about by dialectal diversity, very little progress in the standardization of the language was made until the second half of the twentieth century. Even the impact of the rise of Basque nationalism at the end of the nineteenth century was not entirely positive, since the founder of the Basque Nationalist Party favored the development of a different written variety for each of the Basque provinces. The extreme puristic and neologizing tendency of some writers at the time was also a source of obstacles on the path towards standardization. A Basque language academy was founded in 1918 with the unification of the written language as one of its main goals, but it made essentially no progress until the linguist Luis Michelena (Mitxelena) presented a report to the Basque Academy in 1968 on the bases for a written standard language. From then on, other stages in the standardization process have taken place very rapidly. This new standard has enjoyed enormous success and in a few decades has become firmly established in Basque society.

The American Reception of Hegel (1830–1930)

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Kaag ◽  
Kipton E. Jensen
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
American Pragmatism ◽  
Human Effects ◽  
The Impact

This chapter outlines the reception of Hegel in the United States in the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century. Hegel dramatically influenced the formation of American transcendentalism and American pragmatism, despite often being described as simply antithetical to these American philosophies. While pragmatists such as Peirce and James often criticized a certain interoperation of Hegel, their readings of the Phenomenology and Logic helped them articulate a philosophy, inherited from Emerson, that was geared toward experience and to exploring the practical, deeply human, effects of philosophy. Care is taken to describe the impact that the study of Hegel had on American institutions of culture and politics in the nineteenth century.

Parnell and the Bradlaugh case

1963 ◽  
Vol 13 (51) ◽  
pp. 212-235 ◽  
Author(s):  
Walter L. Arnstein
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Welfare State ◽  
Government Intervention ◽  
Good Reason ◽  
Third Party ◽  
Irish Question ◽  
The Impact

It is a historical truism that the ‘Irish question’ dominated British parliamentary life during the last third of the nineteenth century. For good reason does Sir Robert Ensor give one of the chapters in England, 1870-1914 the title ‘The ascendancy of Parnell’. Yet it is the custom to treat the Irish nationalist contingent at Westminster as concerned only with Irish questions. It has been observed, to be sure, that the ‘Irish question’ had a highly significant impact upon English affairs. The Irish land acts of 1870 and 1881, for example, have come to be seen as a type of government intervention in economic affairs foreshadowing the twentieth-century welfare state. One aspect of the existence of an Irish third party at Westminster has, however, been curiously neglected, the impact of Irish M.Ps upon essentially English political controversies. It is with one such controversy that this paper is concerned, the notorious Bradlaugh case.

The Actress-Manager and the Movies: Resolving the Double Life of Sarah Bernhardt

2018 ◽  
Vol 45 (1) ◽  
pp. 27-55 ◽  
Author(s):  
Victoria Duckett
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Film Industry ◽  
Silent Film ◽  
Late Nineteenth Century ◽  
Modern Media ◽  
Business Experience ◽  
Late Nineteenth ◽  
The Impact ◽  
The Relationship

Sarah Bernhardt is one of the most globally celebrated actress-managers of the late nineteenth century. Bernhardt’s fame, however, is rarely associated with silent film. This article explores the coincidence between Sarah Bernhardt’s role as a theatrical manager in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and her pioneering work in the nascent film industry. I argue that Bernhardt was not only a performer and manager in the theatre, but a creative agent in modern media industries. Questions about the relationship between Bernhardt and early film allow us to discuss the formation of female business experience in the theatre and its subsequent movement into a cinematographic culture that would dominate and define twentieth-century culture and commerce. Even if Bernhardt is regarded as a ‘lone entrepreneur’ and therefore extraneous to broader national discussions of theatrical industrialisation, it is important to understand the impact she has as a media celebrity who used film in order to expand her own twentieth-century global marketability.

The Impact of Late Nineteenth-Century Unions on Labor Earnings and Hours: Iowa in 1894

ILR Review ◽  
1987 ◽  
Vol 40 (4) ◽  
pp. 501-515 ◽  
Author(s):  
Barry Eichengreen
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Labor Market ◽  
The Other ◽  
Late Nineteenth Century ◽  
Wage Dispersion ◽  
Labor Earnings ◽  
Other Hand ◽  
Late Nineteenth ◽  
The Impact

This paper presents an analysis of data on male workers taken from an 1894 survey of the Iowa labor market. Consistent with the results of earlier research by Paul Douglas, the author finds evidence of a statistically significant and economically important union earnings premium. The analysis also shows that late nineteenth-century unionism, like unionism in the twentieth century, tended to reduce wage dispersion. On the other hand, the author finds no evidence that late nineteenth-century unions reduced the length of the workday for union members compared to nonunion workers.

scholarly journals Gruomota: the influence of politics and nationalism on the development of written Latgalian in the long nineteenth century (1772–1918)

2015 ◽  
pp. 35-52 ◽  
Author(s):  
Catherine Gibson
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Comparative Studies ◽  
Russian Empire ◽  
Written Language ◽  
First Century ◽  
Wide Spread ◽  
First Republic ◽  
The Status ◽  
The Impact

Gruomota: the influence of politics and nationalism on the development of written Latgalian in the long nineteenth century (1772–1918)Latgale, the southeast region of Latvia, has a distinct ethnoregional identity largely due to the wide- spread use of the Latgalian language/dialect. The status of Latgalian as a language/dialect is highly politicised in Latvia today, yet this is not only a twenty-first century phenomenon. Since its inception as a written language in the mid-eighteenth century, the development of written Latgalian has been strongly influenced by politics and nationalism. This is an exploratory paper, which traces the impact of politics and nationalism on the development of written Latgalian throughout the long nineteenth century, a period in which the region was administered by three political regimes (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russian Empire, First Republic of Latvia). Transnational perspectives are used to contextualise the development of written Latgalian with the development of other written languages in the vicinity (Belarusian, Latvian, Lithuanian, and Samogitian), and to open up the field for further comparative studies on the development of non-national written languages/dialect. Latgale is a borderland region often neglected in mainstream Latvian scholarship, and by extension, even more so outside Latvia. This paper hopes to go some way to rectifying this. Gramota: wpływ polityki i nacjonalizmu na rozwój łatgalskiego języka literackiego w długim wieku XIX (1772–1918)Łatgalię, południowo-wschodni region Łotwy, cechuje odrębna tożsamość etniczno-regionalna, przede wszystkim z racji powszechnego na tym terenie używania języka/dialektu łatgalskiego. Status łatgalskiego jako języka/dialektu stanowi w dzisiejszej Litwie w dużej mierze kwestię o wymiarze politycznym, aczkolwiek nie jest to zjawisko, które pojawiło się dopiero w XX stuleciu. Łatgalski już od czasu swych narodzin jako język literacki w połowie XVIII wieku pozostawał pod silną presją polityki oraz nacjonalizmów. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu prześledzenie oddziaływania polityki i nacjonalizmu na kształtowanie się literackiej odmiany języka łatgalskiego w ciągu „długiego wieku XIX” – okresu, w którym region ten podlegał administracji rządowej sprawowanej przez trzy systemy polityczne (Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów, Imperium Rosyjskie, Pierwsza Republika Litewska). Spojrzenie na omawiane zagadnienie z perspektywy ponadnarodowej pozwala stworzyć kontekst rozwoju łatgalskiego języka literackiego w odniesieniu do innych języków literackich formujących się w bliskim jego sąsiedztwie (białoruskiego, łotewskiego, litewskiego i semigalskiego), jak też otworzyć pole dla kolejnych studiów porównawczych nad kształtowaniem się nienarodowych języków/dialektów literackich. Łatgalia stanowi region pograniczny, zwykle zaniedbywany przez główny nurt nauki łotewskiej, a tym bardziej w dociekaniach naukowych poza granicami Łotwy. Niniejszy artykuł ma za zadanie choć w pewnej mierze stan ten naprawić.

Chinese Architectural History in the Twenty-First Century

2014 ◽  
Vol 73 (1) ◽  
pp. 38-60
Author(s):  
Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Architectural History ◽  
First Century ◽  
Architectural Practice ◽  
Communist State ◽  
Chinese Architecture ◽  
Cultural Transformations ◽  
Twenty First Century ◽  
The Impact

The impact of foreign building traditions on Chinese architecture had been limited until the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, dramatic changes in construction occurred as the result of the introduction of Western architectural practice and methods of architectural history, as China transformed from an imperial society to a republic to a communist state. In Chinese Architectural History in the Twenty-First Century, Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt examines the state of architectural history in China at the end of the twentieth century and the impact that recent social and cultural transformations are likely to have on the field in the future.

British Timber Imports and Finnish Shipping 1860-1910

2004 ◽  
pp. 91-100
Author(s):  
Yrjö Kaukiainen
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
International Competition ◽  
Timber Trade ◽  
The Difference ◽  
The Impact

This chapter foregrounds the international competition in shipping during the latter half of the nineteenth century and into the beginning of the twentieth century. It notes the impact that the developing timber trade had on shipping and offers an explanation for the low share of Finnish ships responsible for wood transportations. The chapter also provides a comparison of the difference in behaviour between Finnish and British owners and reports the decline of Britain’s shipping dominance after 1895.

Transformation and decline of Sawng: The socio-cultural effects of migration and the changes in intercommunity relations in Calcutta c.1870–1930

2019 ◽  
Vol 56 (4) ◽  
pp. 387-409
Author(s):  
Rajat Kanti Sur
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Nationalist Movement ◽  
Metal Workers ◽  
Cultural Effects ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
The People ◽  
Cultural World ◽  
Caste Groups ◽  
The Impact

Sawng, one of the famous street performances of nineteenth-century Calcutta, was later used as one of the ‘weapons’ of the nationalist movement in the early twentieth century. The leaders of the nationalist movement appointed songwriters or playwrights from elite and educated communities, but the people who performed sawng on the streets of Calcutta came from slum areas. Though these people were from different labouring communities, sawng was known as Kansariparar Sawng (the sawng of the bell metal workers) or Jeleparar Sawng (the sawng of the fishermen). This article focusses on the effects of demographic changes on the socio-cultural world of nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Calcutta. It also focusses on the impact of migration from 1876 to 1931 to understand the reasons behind the decline in the performance of sawng. The article also tries to unpack the complexity of different caste groups which took part in these popular street performances.

scholarly journals PRICES AND WAGES IN THE 1890 CRISIS IN BUENOS AIRES

2015 ◽  
Vol 34 (2) ◽  
pp. 267-294
Author(s):  
Agustina Vence Conti ◽  
Eduardo Martín Cuesta
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Economic History ◽  
Buenos Aires ◽  
Late Nineteenth Century ◽  
New Information ◽  
Open Discussion ◽  
Late Nineteenth ◽  
New Perspective ◽  
The Impact

ABSTRACTThe growth of Argentina’s economy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was so great that it was called “The Great Expansion”. This explains the interest of economic historians to observe, analyze and explain the conditions under which such growth occurred. One of the topics is the 1890 crisis, or “Baring Crisis”. This was seen by contemporaries as the worst economic debacle of the nineteenth century. Studies in economic history have seen this crisis both their macroeconomic aspects, and from the impact that would have occurred in the population. Also, in recent years there has been a renewed interest in the production and analysis of series of prices and wages, as key to analyzing economic indicators economy conditions and living conditions and inequality. Given this historiographical renewal, in this article a new series of prices and wages of Buenos Aires in the late nineteenth century are presented. With this new information, and open discussion with previous works, a new perspective on the evolution of prices and wages is provided, with a different perspective on the impact of the 1890 crisis.

XIV. Handicrafts in India and Indonesia in the Nineteenth Century: Some Tentative Observations

Itinerario ◽  
1987 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 253-264 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. Krishnamurty
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Modern Technology ◽  
Comparative Perspective ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Common Nature ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Rice Processing

When one looks at the phenomenon of declining handicrafts either in terms of the impact of modern technology or in terms of the onslaught of imperialism, India and Indonesia are obvious cases to examine in relation to the nineteenth century. For India there is a well developed literature, much of t i of contemporary nineteenth and early twentieth century vintage; the literature for Indonesia, however, appears somewhat thin in comparison. On closer examination there appear to be many questions of a common nature raised by the literature on the two countries and potentially fruitful issues awaiting investigation in a comparative perspective. To illustrate these possibilities and to stimulate discussion I attempt in this paper to draw upon some work I am doing on two major Indian handicraft industries, textiles and rice processing, and relate some findings of mine and of others to what has been done (or can be done) on these industries in Indonesia.

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