scholarly journals Attenuation of Post-Meal Cardio-Metabolic Indices with Red Raspberries in Older Overweight/Obese Adults

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (Supplement_2) ◽  
pp. 91-91
Author(s):  
Di Xiao ◽  
Indika Edirisinghe ◽  
Britt Burton-Freeman
Keyword(s):  
Vascular Function ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Obese Adults ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Metabolic Markers ◽  
Postprandial Glycemia ◽  
Funding Sources ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Freeze Dried

Abstract Objectives Red raspberries (RRB) contain fiber and a unique combination of polyphenols with possible cardiovascular and metabolic benefits. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of acute red raspberry intake on cardio-metabolic markers of postprandial substrate metabolism and vascular endothelial function in older overweight/obese adults. Methods Thirty adults (age: 60 ± 4 years, BMI: 29.9 ± 3.0 kg m−2, mean ± SD) were randomized to the single-blinded, controlled, crossover trial. Participants consumed a high carbohydrate moderate fat breakfast (HCMF) meal containing 0 gram (control, 750 kcal) or 25 gram of freeze-dried RRB powder (2 cups fresh RRB equivalence, 752 kcal) on two occasions separated by 7 days washout period. Blood was collected at baseline and then again at 8 time points over 7.5 hours after test meals to determine glucose, insulin and triglyceride concentrations. Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) was assessed at baseline and then at 2 and 5 hours post test meal. Results A significant treatment * time interaction was observed for glucose (P = 0.014) and insulin (P < 0.01). Additionally, RRB significantly reduced the incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of insulin (P < 0.05), as well as the postprandial maximum concentration of glucose (P < 0.05), and insulin (P < 0.05). No significant treatment-related differences were observed for triglycerides. Vascular function as measured by changes in %FMD was significantly influenced by treatment (RRB 5.5 ± 0.3% versus control 4.7 ± 0.3%, P = 0.015). Conclusions Acute RRB supplementation attenuated postprandial glycemia and increased the vascular relaxation response after an HCMF meal challenge in a group of older overweight and obese individuals. Funding Sources This work was supported by the National Processed Raspberry Council.

scholarly journals Exercise delays allogeneic tumor growth and reduces intratumoral inflammation and vascularization

2004 ◽  
Vol 96 (6) ◽  
pp. 2249-2256 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark R. Zielinski ◽  
Melissa Muenchow ◽  
Matthew A. Wallig ◽  
Peggy L. Horn ◽  
Jeffrey A. Woods
Keyword(s):  
Tumor Growth ◽  
Tumor Volume ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Tumor Regression ◽  
Exercise Bout ◽  
Strenuous Exercise ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Hematoxylin And Eosin ◽  
Rapid Regression

This investigation determined whether daily strenuous exercise would alter the progression and regression of an allogeneic lymphoid tumor in mice. We also determined whether exercise would alter the cellular composition and vascularity of the tumor. Female BALB/c mice (age 6–8 wk) were randomly assigned to sedentary control (Con) or daily exercised groups (EXH). EXH mice ran on a treadmill at incremental speeds (20–40 m/min) for 3 h or until fatigue. Each mouse was subcutaneously injected with 20 × 106 EL-4 lymphoma cells immediately after the first exercise bout ( day 1) and run daily. Tumor volume was measured daily with calipers. In some experiments, mice were euthanized on days 5–10, 12, and 14. Tumors were excised and stained with hematoxylin and eosin or for Factor VIII-associated antigen using immunohistochemistry and analyzed in a blinded fashion under a light microscope. There was no significant treatment main effect found for tumor volumes. Interestingly, a significant treatment × time interaction was found, such that there was a 2-day delay in peak tumor volume and a more rapid tumor regression in EXH. Tumors isolated from Con exhibited significantly higher numbers of apoptotic bodies, blood vessels, macrophages, and neutrophils when compared with EXH. Intratumoral lymphocytes were higher in Con early in tumor growth but higher in EXH at peak tumor size. These data indicate that daily strenuous exercise may influence tumor growth by affecting the microenvironment of the tumor, resulting in a delay in tumor growth and a more rapid regression.

scholarly journals Inulin-type fructan intervention restricts the increase in gut microbiome–generated indole in patients with peritoneal dialysis: a randomized crossover study

2020 ◽  
Vol 111 (5) ◽  
pp. 1087-1099 ◽  
Author(s):  
Li Li ◽  
Qingqing Xiong ◽  
Jing Zhao ◽  
Xuechun Lin ◽  
Shuiqin He ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Peritoneal Dialysis ◽  
Gut Microbiome ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Fecal Ph ◽  
Stage Renal Disease ◽  
End Stage

ABSTRACT Background Indoxyl sulfate (IS) and p-cresyl sulfate (pCS), 2 important protein-bound uremic toxins, are independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with end-stage renal disease. Indole and p-cresol are gut microbiome–generated precursors of IS and pCS. Objective The aim of the present study was to determine whether inulin-type fructans (ITFs) reduce the production of indole and p-cresol by altering their producing bacteria in patients with peritoneal dialysis. Methods Patients receiving peritoneal dialysis for >3 mo without diabetes and not using antibiotics were recruited to a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of ITF intervention over 36 wk (12-wk washout). The primary outcomes were gut microbiome, fecal indole and p-cresol, indole-producing bacteria, p-cresol-producing bacteria, and serum IS and pCS. The secondary outcomes were fecal pH, 24-h urine, and dialysis removal of IS and pCS. Results Of 21 individuals randomly assigned, 15 completed the study. The daily nutrient intakes, including protein, tryptophan, and tyrosine, were isostatic during the prebiotic, washout, and placebo intervention. There were no baseline differences in the outcomes of interest between treatments. For fecal indole, its concentrations did not change significantly in either treatment. However, there was a trend toward the treatment-by-time effect (P = 0.052), with a quantitative reduction in the ITF treatment and an increase in the control. The difference in the changes between the 2 treatments was significant (−10.07 ± 7.48 μg/g vs +13.35 ± 7.66 μg/g; P = 0.040). Similar to Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, there was a difference over time between the 2 treatments, with a significant treatment and time interaction effect (P = 0.047). There were no treatment, time, or interaction effects for fecal p-cresol, serum IS and pCS, 24-h urine, and dialysis removal of IS and pCS. Conclusions Our results suggested that ITFs restricted the increase in gut microbiome–generated indole in patients with peritoneal dialysis. This trial was registered at http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=21228 as ChiCTR-INR-17013739.

scholarly journals Comparison of the Effects of Freshly Cooked or Reheated Mashed Potato, Prepared with Different Solid Fat Spreads, on Postprandial Glycemia

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (Supplement_2) ◽  
pp. 654-654
Author(s):  
Tracey Robertson ◽  
Barbara Fielding ◽  
Jonathan Brown ◽  
Denise Robertson
Keyword(s):  
Insulin Response ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Saturated Fat ◽  
Postprandial Glucose ◽  
Glucose Absorption ◽  
Insulinogenic Index ◽  
Glucose Response ◽  
Solid Fat ◽  
Postprandial Glycemia ◽  
Funding Sources

Abstract Objectives Resistant starch (RS) is classed as a dietary fiber and does not contribute to the postprandial glucose excursion. Two types may be formed during food processing: RS3 when a starchy carbohydrate cools; RS5 when starch is heated in the presence of lipid. It is unknown whether RS5 can be produced under domestic cooking conditions or whether different fat types would affect the amount formed. Nor is it known whether sufficient RS3 remains after a chilled meal is reheated to have a significant impact on the postprandial glucose response. The aim of this study was to determine if different solid fat spreads (of varying fatty acid composition) incorporated into a mashed potato meal, served either freshly cooked or chilled and reheated, would produce different effects on the postprandial glucose and insulin responses. Methods Ten healthy adults (age: 29 ± 5 y; BMI: 21.7 ± 2.6 kg/m2) attended six study days in a randomized crossover design. On each day, they consumed mashed potatoes (203 g) prepared with one of three solid fat spreads (butter, sunflower oil, olive oil, each providing 20 g fat). Each meal was consumed freshly cooked or microwave-reheated (after two days refrigeration at 4°C). Capillary blood samples were taken for 180 min postprandially. Plasma glucose and insulin were measured by glucose-oxidase method and ELISA respectively. Results Glucose incremental area under the curve (IAUC) was significantly lower for the reheated meal with butter, compared to the equivalent freshly cooked meal (P = 0.030). Insulinogenic Index (IGI), a surrogate measure of first phase insulin response, was significantly lower for the freshly cooked butter meal in comparison with the reheated equivalent (P = 0.031). There were no other differences between meals, either for fat type or preparation method. Conclusions Differences in RS formation may explain these results; work is underway to measure both total RS and RS5.  Other possible explanations are differences in effects on glucose absorption, such as via delayed gastric emptying. Whilst a beneficial effect on postprandial glucose and IGI was observed for the reheated butter meal, in comparison to the freshly cooked, it should be remembered that butter contains saturated fat, which has detrimental effects on blood lipids and should only be consumed in moderation. Funding Sources Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, UK.

Light Activity Following a Meal and Postprandial Cardiometabolic Risk in Adolescents

2013 ◽  
Vol 25 (3) ◽  
pp. 347-359 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susan B. Sisson ◽  
Ashley E. Gibson ◽  
Kevin Short ◽  
Andrew W. Gardner ◽  
Teresa Whited ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Risk Factors ◽  
Cardiometabolic Risk ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Cardiometabolic Risk Factors ◽  
Light Physical Activity ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Light Activity

The purpose of this study was to determine if light physical activity (LPA) minimizes the impairment of cardiometabolic risk factors following a typical meal in adolescents. Eighteen adolescents (50% male, 14.8 ± 2.3 yrs) consumed a meal (32% fat, 14% protein, 53% carbohydrate), then completed a walking (1.5mph for 45 min of each hour) or sitting treatment for 3 hr in randomized order on separate days. Following the meal, HDL cholesterol declined 4.8% but remained higher during walking at 3 hr (42.1mg/dl ± 9.3) than sitting (8.4% decline; 40.5mg/dL ± 9.9; treatment × time interaction, p < .03). The 3-hr insulin was lower after walking (24.8μIU/ml ± 33.4) than sitting (37.8μIU/ml ± 34.7; treatment × time interaction, p < .0001). Triglycerides increased by ~40% above baseline at 1 and 2 hr, with higher values for walking (treatment × time interaction, p < .02). However by 3 hr, triglycerides were not different from baseline. Area under the curve (AUC) analyses were not significantly different between treatments for any outcomes. Although minor, LPA appears to mitigate the undesirable postprandial changes in HDL cholesterol and insulin but not triglycerides, following a typical meal in adolescents.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Evaluating the Efficacy of a Psychoeducation Program for Families of Children and Adolescents With ADHD in the United Kingdom: Results After a 6-Month Follow-Up

2016 ◽  
Vol 24 (5) ◽  
pp. 768-779 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maite Ferrin ◽  
Viviana Perez-Ayala ◽  
Samaa El-Abd ◽  
Teresa Lax-Pericall ◽  
Brian Jacobs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Group Treatment ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Controlled Trial ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Treatment As Usual ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Additional Approach

Objective: Psychoeducation forms part of the current practice for ADHD; however, its efficacy is yet to be established. Method: Sixty-nine children/adolescents with ADHD were randomly assigned for their families to receive either a well-structured psychoeducation program ( n = 35), or belong to a control group (treatment-as-usual, n = 34). Results: One-way analyses of variance showed a statistically significant Treatment × Time interaction, for ADHD total symptoms, inattention/cognition, and hyperactivity/impulsivity subdomains according to the parents, the first two with medium-large effect sizes. The effects of the intervention on the ADHD total and the inattention/cognition domain persisted after 6 months follow-up. No significant differences in teacher ratings were found; however, an improvement in clinical functioning as measured by clinicians was observed. Conclusion: This psychoeducation program has shown effectiveness in reducing ADHD symptoms when compared with treatment as usual. Psychoeducation needs to be considered as a valid and additional approach in ADHD.

scholarly journals Effect of bioactive proteins on gait kinematics and systemic inflammatory markers in mature horses

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
K K Fikes ◽  
J A Coverdale ◽  
J L Leatherwood ◽  
J M Campbell ◽  
T H Welsh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gait Analysis ◽  
Inflammatory Markers ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Dietary Treatment ◽  
Protein Supplementation ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Gait Kinematics ◽  
Bioactive Proteins

Abstract Twenty-seven mature Quarter horses were used in a randomized design to determine the effects of bioactive protein supplementation on gait kinematics and systemic inflammatory markers in a 34-d trial. Treatments consisted of oral doses of 230 g/d of pelleted supplements containing 0 g (CON; n = 9), 40 g of bioactive protein (40BP; n = 9; LIFELINE, APC, LLC, Ankeny, IA), and 80 g of bioactive protein (80BP; n = 9) daily. Horses were fed a commercial concentrate at 0.5% BW (as-fed) and received ad libitum coastal bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) hay daily. On day 33, horses consistent in exercise (CON, n = 6; 40BP, n = 8; 80BP, n = 7) participated in a trailering and riding challenge. Kinematic gait analysis was performed on day 0 for use as a covariate, and on day 14, 28, and 34 to allow for the determination of potential time and dosage effects. Video footage was collected and analyzed using gait analysis software (EquineTec, Monroe, GA) for the determination of stride length (SL) and range of motion (ROM). Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture on days 0, 14, 28, and 34 for determination of systemic expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-1β. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS. A trend towards treatment × time interaction was observed in ROM of the knee at the walk (P = 0.10), due to the increasing ROM for 40BP and 80BP as time increased and decreasing ROM for CON. A treatment × time interaction was observed (P &lt; 0.01) for hock ROM at a walk resulting from CON and 80BP decreasing from day 14 to 28 with 40BP increasing, while from day 28 to 34 ROM at a walk decreased for 40BP and increased for 80BP. The main effect of treatment on hock ROM at the walk was quadratic (P &lt; 0.01) and characterized by higher ROM values for 40BP compared to CON or 80BP. Dietary treatment lengthened (P = 0.04) SL of the hind limb at the walk for 40BP and 80BP compared to CON on both days 14 and 28. A significant treatment × time interaction was observed in the expression of IL-1β (P &lt; 0.01) and can be explained by lower concentrations of IL-1β for 80BP on day 34 compared to the other treatments, with 40BP being intermediate and CON being the highest. Increased articular ROM with decreased expression of IL-1β may indicate potential anti-inflammatory effects of 80 g/d of bioactive proteins.

scholarly journals 14-days of ketone supplementation lowers glucose and improves vascular function in obesity: a randomized crossover trial

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jeremy J Walsh ◽  
Helena Neudorf ◽  
Jonathan P Little
Keyword(s):  
Systemic Inflammation ◽  
Vascular Function ◽  
Glucose Monitoring ◽  
Postprandial Glucose ◽  
Postprandial Hyperglycemia ◽  
Placebo Condition ◽  
Postprandial Glycemia ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Plasma Cytokines

Abstract Background Postprandial hyperglycemia increases systemic inflammation and is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. A ketone monoester (KME) drink containing β-hydroxybutyrate (β-OHB) rapidly lowers plasma glucose, which may be a strategy protecting against postprandial hyperglycemia. We hypothesized that KME would attenuate 2-hour postprandial glucose, lower systemic inflammation, and improve vascular function in adults with obesity. Methods In a randomized crossover design, 14 participants with obesity (age = 56±12 yrs; BMI = 32.8±7.7 kg/m 2) consumed KME (12 g β-OHB) or placebo 15-minutes prior to each meal for 14-days with all meals provided and matched between conditions. Postprandial glycemia was assessed by continuous glucose monitoring. Vascular function and inflammation were assessed before and after treatment periods. Results Postprandial glucose was 8.0% lower in KME versus placebo (g=0.735; p=0.011) and 24-hour average glucose reduced by 7.8% (g=0.686; p=0.0001). Brachial artery flow-mediated dilation increased from 6.2±1.5% to 8.9±3.3% in KME (g=1.05; p=0.0004) with no changes in placebo (condition X time interaction, p=0.004). There were no changes in plasma cytokines; however, LPS-stimulated monocyte caspase-1 activation was lower following KME supplementation versus placebo (stimulation x condition x time interaction; p=0.004). The KME supplement was well tolerated by participants and adherence to the supplementation regimen was very high. Conclusions In adults with obesity, 14-days of pre-meal KME supplementation improves glucose control, enhances vascular function, and may reduce cellular inflammation. KME supplementation may be a viable, non-pharmacological approach to improving and protecting vascular health in people with heightened cardiometabolic risk.

scholarly journals Pseudoephedrine Ingestion and Cycling Time-Trial Performance

2010 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
pp. 132-138 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kellie R. Pritchard-Peschek ◽  
David G. Jenkins ◽  
Mark A. Osborne ◽  
Gary J. Slater
Keyword(s):  
Treatment Time ◽  
Venous Blood ◽  
Time Trial ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Variable Intensity ◽  
Fixed Amount ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Cycling Time Trial ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Cycling Time

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of 180 mg of pseudoephedrine (PSE) on cycling time-trial (TT) performance. Six well-trained male cyclists and triathletes (age 33 ± 2 yr, mass 81 ± 8 kg, height 182.0 ± 6.7 cm, VO2max 56.8 ± 6.8 ml ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ min−1; M ± SD) underwent 2 performance trials in which they completed a 25-min variable-intensity (50–90% maximal aerobic power) warm-up, followed by a cycling TT in which they completed a fixed amount of work (7 kJ/kg body mass) in the shortest possible time. Sixty minutes before the start of exercise, they orally ingested 180 mg of PSE or a cornstarch placebo (PLA) in a randomized, crossover, double-blind manner. Venous blood was sampled immediately pre- and postexercise for the analysis of pH plus lactate, glucose, and norepinephrine (NE). PSE improved cycling TT performance by 5.1% (95% CI 0–10%) compared with PLA (28:58.9 ± 4:26.5 and 30:31.7 ± 4:36.7 min, respectively). There was a significant Treatment × Time interaction (p = .04) for NE, with NE increasing during the PSE trial only. Similarly, blood glucose also showed a trend (p = .06) for increased levels postexercise in the PSE trial. The ingestion of 180 mg of PSE 60 min before the onset of high-intensity exercise improved cycling TT performance in well-trained athletes. It is possible that changes in metabolism or an increase in central nervous system stimulation is responsible for the observed ergogenic effect of PSE.

Protein and Antioxidants in an Isocaloric Carbohydrate Drink: Effect on Plasma Oxidative-Stress Markers and IL-6

2009 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 115-126 ◽  
Author(s):  
Allan H. Goldfarb ◽  
Changmo Cho ◽  
Hojune Cho ◽  
Brett Romano-Ely ◽  
M. Kent Todd
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Protein Carbonyls ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Lipid Hydroperoxides ◽  
Significant Treatment ◽  
Stress Markers ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Study Participants

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an isocaloric beverage with added protein and vitamins (CHOPA) would influence oxidative stress and inflammation after cycling to exhaustion as indicated by plasma protein carbonyls (PC), lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Twelve trained men (18–33 yr) volunteered and performed this randomized crossover study. Participants cycled at 70% VO2peak until fatigue and at 80% VO2peak 22–24 hr later to fatigue with either carbohydrate or CHOPA. Blood collected before the cycling at rest and 24, 48, and 72 hr after the exercise was analyzed for PC and LOOH spectrophotometrically and for IL-6 via an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The data were analyzed with SPSS using repeated-measures ANOVA. PC demonstrated significant treatment (p = .037) and time (p = .004) effects with no Treatment × Time interaction. PC was higher in the CHOPA treatment than with CHO independent of time and increased at 24 (48%), 48 (59%), and 72 (67%) hr after exercise compared with preexercise values. Resting LOOH and IL-6 did not have any significant changes with time or treatment. These data indicate that an isocaloric CHOPA drink after 2 cycling bouts to exhaustion will exacerbate the resting PC level compared with an isocaloric drink, with no influence on plasma LOOH or IL-6. In addition, a modest significant increase in PC over time independent of treatment occurred, which suggests a mild oxidative stress in the days after exhaustive exercise.

scholarly journals 233 NaturSafe® supplementation mitigates some aspects of the acute phase immune response to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge in weaned beef calves

2020 ◽  
Vol 98 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 117-117
Author(s):  
Nicole C Burdick Sanchez ◽  
Jeffery A Carroll ◽  
Paul R Broadway ◽  
Tom S Edrington ◽  
Ilkyu Yoon ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Acute Phase ◽  
Treatment Time ◽  
Sickness Behavior ◽  
Serum Cortisol ◽  
Post Challenge ◽  
Serum Samples ◽  
Lps Challenge ◽  
Time Interaction ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Monitoring Devices

Abstract This study was conducted to determine if feeding calves NaturSafe would reduce the acute phase response (APR) to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Crossbred steers (n=32; 274±2 kg) were randomly allotted to two treatment diets: 1) Control, fed a standard receiving ration, and 2) NaturSafe, fed the Control ration supplemented with NaturSafe at 12 g/hd/d (NaturSafe®, Diamond V). On d22, steers were fitted with indwelling jugular catheters and rectal temperature monitoring devices and placed in individual stalls. On d23, steers were challenged i.v. with 0.25 µg/kg BW LPS. Serum samples were collected and sickness behavior scores (SBS) recorded at 0.5-h intervals from -2 to 8h and at 24h relative to LPS challenge. Rectal temperatures were greater (P=0.01) in NaturSafe compared to Control steers for the following time intervals following LPS challenge: 6 to 11h, 13h, 15 to 20h, and 22 to 24h. Additionally, SBS were reduced (P&lt; 0.01) in NaturSafe compared to Control steers. White blood cell concentrations were greater (P=0.05) in NaturSafe compared to Control steers prior to the LPS challenge, yet the response to LPS did not differ between treatments (P &gt;0.05). A treatment × time interaction for serum cortisol concentrations (P&lt; 0.01) showed an increase at 0.5 and 2h post-challenge but a reduction at 3h in NaturSafe compared to Control steers. Additionally, fibrinogen was greater (P&lt; 0.01) in NaturSafe compared to Control steers. There was a treatment × time interaction (P&lt; 0.01) for TNF-α where concentrations were reduced from 1 to 2h post-challenge in NaturSafe compared to Control steers. Serum IL-6 tended (P=0.09) to show a reduction in serum concentrations in NaturSafe compared to Control steers. There was a tendency (P=0.07) for a treatment × time interaction for IFN-γ. Overall these data suggest a priming effect of NaturSafe on the innate immune system of steers, resulting in an attenuated APR to the LPS challenge.

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