The First Farmers

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Douglas Price
Keyword(s):  
Near East ◽  
Natural Habitat ◽  
Coastal Region ◽  
Wild Plants ◽  
Human Society ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Major Turning Point ◽  
Wild Sheep ◽  
Spread Of Agriculture

The origins and spread of agriculture and a Neolithic way of life marked a major turning point in the evolution of human society. Farming changed everything. Our heritage as food collectors, consuming the wild products of the earth, extends back millions of years. Nevertheless, at the end of the Pleistocene some human groups began to produce their own food rather than collect it, to domesticate and control wild plants and animals, achieving what is perhaps the most remarkable transformation in our entire human past. Agriculture is a way of obtaining food that involves domesticated plants and animals. But the transition to farming is much more than simple herding or cultivation. It also entails major, long-term changes in the structure and organization of the societies that adopt this new way of life, as well as a totally new relationship with the environment. Hunters and gatherers largely live off the land in an extensive fashion, generally exploiting diverse resources over a broad area; farmers intensively use a smaller portion of the landscape and create a milieu that suits their needs. With the transition to agriculture, humans began to truly change their environment. Cultivation of plants and herding of animals, village society, and pottery did not originate in Europe. Domestication arrived from the ancient Near East. The Neolithic began in southwest Asia some 11,000 years ago and eventually spread into the European continent, carried by expanding populations of farmers. The mountains of western Iran and southern Turkey and the uplands of the Levant (the coastal region of the far eastern part of the Mediterranean, from the northeastern Sinai Peninsula through modern Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, and west along the modern Turkish coast) form an elevated zone somewhat cooler and wetter than much of the Near East. The area has been described as the Fertile Crescent. A variety of wild plants grow in abundance. This region was the natural habitat of many of the wild ancestors of the first species of plants and animals to be domesticated at the end of the Pleistocene: the wild wheats and barleys, the wild legumes, and the wild sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle that began to be exploited in large numbers at the origins of agriculture.

Megaliths and Holy Places in the Genesis of the Kingdom of Asturias (North of Spain, ad 718–910)

2015 ◽  
Author(s):  
Miguel Ángel de Blas Cortina ◽  
Marta Díaz-Guardamino
Keyword(s):  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Mountain Range ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
Santa Cruz ◽  
Northern Spain ◽  
Fluvial Terrace ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Holy Places ◽  
North Of Spain ◽  
Bear Witness

Flowing from the Picos de Europa mountain range into the Bay of Biscay (in a SW–NE direction), the River Sella is the main dividing axis of the highly mountainous territory of Asturias, northern Spain, with peaks up to 2,500 metres. The first known human traces in the Sella river basin date back to the Middle Palaeolithic and include remains of thirteen Neanderthal individuals found in the cave of El Sidrón. Archaeological remains dating to the Upper Palaeolithic and the Epipalaeolithic are frequent throughout the region. The adoption of the Neolithic way of life in Asturias was modest. The polished axes found in large numbers and mostly manufactured with rocks imported from other regions, are one of the main sources of evidence to study the Asturian Neolithic. The most noticeable archaeological evidence for this period is, however, the megalithic phenomenon, the earliest monuments dating to the beginning of the fourth millennium BC. Unlike the usual concentrations of barrows and dolmens in other areas of northern Iberia, these constructions are often found on high ground, strategically overlooking the main stretches of well-travelled pathways. The most prominent Asturian megalith, Santa Cruz (Cangas de Onís), however, differs from the pattern outlined above, as it was placed on a fluvial terrace, on a location often flooded by the Sella and Güeña rivers, which meet here (Blas Cortina 1997a; 1997b). The low altitude and the fair conditions of the optimal Holocene would have provided the basis for a densely forested environment throughout the fifth and fourth millennia bc. Historically, the most populated town of this region has been Cangas de Onís, located in the confluence of the Sella and Güeña rivers, where the best agricultural land is also found. These apt conditions also extend to the adjoining valley of Güeña, home to the sites of Covadonga and Abamia, which bear witness to the interweaving of prehistoric memory and Medieval affairs that will be discussed in this chapter.

The Early Development of Agriculture in Britain

1938 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 27-51
Author(s):  
E. Cecil Curwen
Keyword(s):  
Early Development ◽  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Near East ◽  
Internal Combustion ◽  
Wild Plants ◽  
Combustion Engines ◽  
Literal Sense ◽  
The Arts ◽  
Cain And Abel ◽  
History Of

The discovery of agriculture marks the greatest advance in the history of mankind— comparable only to that which has followed the discovery of electricity and the invention of steam and internal combustion engines. It is now well recognised that without agriculture man was a food-gatherer, dependent on nature's supplies in hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants, whereas with agriculture he has become a food -producer, able to augment nature's fitful supply in both animal and vegetable kingdoms.In modern speech the term ‘agriculture’ is often used to cover stock-raising as well as corn-growing; in the present paper, however, it will be used in its literal sense of the tilling of fields, and more particularly the cultivation of corn. This art appears to have been developed before that of stock-raising, and though both the cultivation of corn and the domestication of certain animals are among the elements that led to the first rise of civilization in the Near East, yet there may have existed at first a certain antipathy between the nomad herdsman and the settled farmer. This line of cleavage is well exemplified in the story of Cain and Abel, and the continuation of the story shows very well how it was the settled farmers, represented by Cain's descendants, who built the first cities and developed the working of metal and the arts of music, while the herdsman remained nomadic.

Effects of simulated herbivory on growth and reproduction of two beach annuals, Cakile edentula and Corispermum hyssopifolium

1992 ◽  
Vol 70 (12) ◽  
pp. 2467-2475 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kevin E. Gedge ◽  
M. A. Maun
Keyword(s):  
Reproductive Output ◽  
Natural Habitat ◽  
Critical Time ◽  
Insect Herbivores ◽  
Compensatory Response ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Cakile Edentula ◽  
Specialist Insect ◽  
Heavy Damage ◽  
Growth And Reproduction

Cakile edentula var. lucustris (sea rocket) and Corispermum hyssopifolium (bugseed) are two annual flowering plants that grow on the sandy shores of the Great Lakes. This habitat is extremely unpredictable and plants are subject to grazing by a number of insect herbivores as well as browsing by white-tailed deer. The objectives of these studies were to estimate the extent of herbivore damage under natural conditions, to determine the most vulnerable stage of damage, and to examine the compensatory ability of each species to tolerate herbivory. Greenhouse experiments showed that both species were able to compensate for low to moderate levels of artificial defoliation. However, high levels near the time of anthesis reduced the growth and reproductive output of both species. Similar experiments in the field revealed that although the critical time of damage was still the same, the plants were less able to tolerate herbivory. Cakile edentula plants exposed to natural herbivory in an unsprayed cabbage field were quickly attacked by large numbers of specialist insect herbivores and completely defoliated in 11 days. The fact that such damage does not occur in its natural habitat suggests that Cakile edentula escapes heavy damage because insects are unable to locate these populations along the shoreline. Key words: white-tailed deer, defoliation intensity, defoliation stage, compensatory response, indeterminate growth.

scholarly journals Wind Speed Affects Pollination Success in Blackberries

Sociobiology ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 65 (2) ◽  
pp. 225 ◽  
Author(s):  
Allison Young ◽  
Pilar Gomez-Ruiz ◽  
Janelle Pena ◽  
Hiromi Uno ◽  
Rodolfo Jaffé
Keyword(s):  
Wind Speed ◽  
Environmental Factors ◽  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Environmental Factor ◽  
Ecosystem Service ◽  
Natural Habitat ◽  
Wild Plants ◽  
Agricultural Crops ◽  
Pollination Success ◽  
General Consensus

Pollination of wild plants and agricultural crops is a vitally important ecosystem service. Many landscape and environmental factors influence the pollination success of crops, including distance from natural habitat, wind speed, and solar radiation. Although there is a general consensus that increasing distance from forest decreases pollination success, few studies have examined the influence of specific environmental factors. In this study, we examined which environmental factors influence the pollination success of blackberries (Rubus glaucus). We measured the number of fruitlets per berry, a proxy for pollination success, as well as the weight and sweetness of each berry. Our results indicate that number of fruitlets is positively correlated with wind speed, but number of unripe red berries per bush is negatively correlated with wind speed. In addition, sweetness increased with increasing numbers of red berries per bush but was lower when flowers and berries were present, though this result should be considered with caution due to methodological limitations. Our findings suggest that a little studied environmental factor, wind, has a large impact on the number of fruitlets in blackberries. Although our findings should be confirmed in other locations to draw broader conclusions, they suggest that producers should consider the effect of wind on blackberry yield to optimize blackberry production.

scholarly journals VIDEOCONTEST SENSITIVITY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE CHILDREN IN EXTREME CLIMATIC AND ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ARCTIC

2021 ◽  
Vol 77 (1) ◽  
pp. 36-39
Author(s):  
M.A. Koshuba ◽  
◽  
S.A. Petrov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Natural Habitat ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
School Age Children ◽  
Cultural Integration ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
The North ◽  
Adaptive Capabilities ◽  
Spatial Frequencies ◽  
Industrial Civilization ◽  
Primary School Age

Ethnic groups of the small peoples of the North are a unique social phenomenon, as they preserve the traditional way of life laid down in age-old traditions, preserve the linguistic heritage, continue national crafts and way of managing. The interference of industrial civilization, environmental aspects, globalization processes, economic and cultural integration have their colossal destruction not only on the natural habitat and way of life of indigenous peoples, but also impose extremely high demands on the adaptive capabilities of the organism. Younger schoolchildren were examined who underwent visiocontrast perimetry in the range of spatial frequencies from 0,37 to 18 cycles / deg. It was found that for the diagnostic assessment of central vision in health and disease, it is necessary to take into account the age of the patients and climatogeographic living conditions

scholarly journals To the history of tolerance formation as an integral element of the modern way of life

2021 ◽  
pp. 90-98
Author(s):  
Madina Mehdieva
Keyword(s):  
Human Behavior ◽  
Social Value ◽  
Mutual Understanding ◽  
Human Society ◽  
Human Knowledge ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
Rational Thinking ◽  
History Of ◽  
Integral Element ◽  
Development Of Tolerance

Tolerance has been the most important moral characteristic and social value of a person since the inception of human society. Tolerance, which is defined as a spiritual phenomenon, manifests itself in various forms in all areas of life and determines the nature of communication in human behavior. Among them we can show everything, from the most primitive ancient forms of consciousness to forms of artistic and rational thinking. The essence of each of these forms of self-expression is mutual understanding, understanding and empathy. As human knowledge deepened, thoughts and ideas around this problem expanded. The history of the development of tolerance shows that today this moral and legal category is an integral part of the modern way of life.

scholarly journals Propagation for the Conservation of Pityopsis ruthii, an Endangered Species from the Southeastern United States

HortScience ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 49 (2) ◽  
pp. 194-200 ◽  
Author(s):  
Phillip A. Wadl ◽  
Timothy A. Rinehart ◽  
Adam J. Dattilo ◽  
Mark Pistrang ◽  
Lisa M. Vito ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Endangered Species ◽  
Natural Habitat ◽  
Basal Medium ◽  
Single Individual ◽  
In Vitro Multiplication ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Lateral Shoots ◽  
Genetic Swamping ◽  
Germination Techniques

Pityopsis ruthii is an endangered species endemic to the Hiwassee and Ocoee Rivers in Tennessee. As part of a recovery effort focused on P. ruthii, vegetative propagation and in vitro multiplication and seed germination techniques were developed. Plants were vegetatively propagated using greenhouse stock plants and wild-collected stems. Rooting occurred with and without auxin treatments but was greatest when 0.1% indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) talc was applied to the vegetative cuttings; rooting was lowest when flowering stems were used. Pro-Mix BX substrate provided the most consistent rooting. In vitro multiplication was accomplished by the removal of lateral shoots from in vitro-grown plants that were rooted on Murashige and Skoog (MS0) basal medium with 270 clones produced from a single individual after 4 months. Nineteen clones were transplanted and secured with bonded fiber matrix into their natural habitat and 14 survived for 1 year. To avoid genetic swamping of native populations with the introduction of large numbers of genetically identical individuals through clonal propagation, seed-based propagation efforts were explored. Open-pollinated seeds were collected, disinfested and germinated, and seedlings established on MS medium. Seeds were submersed in 70% ethanol for 1 minute and briefly flamed. Seeds were surface-sterilized in a range [10% to 50% (v/v)] Clorox® bleach solutions with vigorous shaking for 20 minutes, rinsed three times in sterile water, and germinated on MS0. Removal of pappus from seeds was required for successful disinfestations, but the bleach concentration was not critical. Successful propagation is a step toward the conservation and recovery of P. ruthii and should allow future reintroduction projects.

scholarly journals Changes in local distribution and numbers of staging and wintering Bean Geese Anser fabalis in Scania, south Sweden 1977/1978–2016/2017

Ornis Svecica ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 27 (2–4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Leif Nilsson
Keyword(s):  
Small Area ◽  
Coastal Region ◽  
Local Distribution ◽  
Southern Sweden ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Bean Goose ◽  
South Sweden ◽  
Anser Fabalis ◽  
Global Population ◽  
Different Parts

Scania in southern Sweden is an important staging and wintering province for the Bean Goose Anser fabalis, especially for the Taiga form A. f. fabalis. Based on counts in October, November and January 1977/1978–2016/2017, and observations of neck-banded individuals, the changes in local distribution are described. When the counts started, large numbers were counted already in October, but autumn numbers steadily decreased as the geese stayed further north in Sweden. The January counts on the other hand increased as the geese wintered in Scania in successively larger numbers rather than leaving Sweden. In January 2017, more than 40,000 or two-thirds of the global population of Taiga Bean Goose were counted in Scania. Within the province, more and more geese concentrated to inland areas and instead of using the Öresund coastal region as in earlier years. Birds from different breeding areas, e.g. from Finland and Sweden, used different parts of Scania. In recent years 3000–9000 of Tundra Bean Geese Anser f. rossicus have been wintering in a small area in northeast Scania.

scholarly journals ESTABLISHING AND STANDARDIZATION OF DESIGN METHODOLOGIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL COMPETENCE OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (2) ◽  
pp. 527-531
Author(s):  
Victoria Veleva
Keyword(s):  
School Children ◽  
Current Issue ◽  
Preschool Age ◽  
Human Society ◽  
School Age ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
Valuable Component ◽  
Accurate Judgment ◽  
Research Goal ◽  
School Pedagogy

The modern dynamic and fast-paced way of life, the provocative environment, urbanization and the new priorities in our interaction with the surrounding world, require not only the creation but also the effective deepening of the environmental competence of Adolescents from preschool age. This, on the other hand, shows the current issue, for educators as well as psychologists, of examining the ecological competence of preschool children.Considering the antagonism in the relationships "human - society - nature”, we believe that it is entirely appropriate to draw the following conclusion: To date, pedagogical science faces the difficult, but necessary task, to create and approve methodologies for the study of the environmental competence of children at pre-school age.This article examines the projection methodologies as a reliable and valuable component of pedagogical diagnostics. It is the projection methodologies that provoke impulsive associations in the studied children, which allows to make a more accurate judgment in the diagnostics of the studied area. Not coincidentally, prof. G. Bizhkov summarizes that “Pedagogical diagnostics has no reason not to focus on a wider use of these methods, despite the fact that they rarely lead to the display of coefficients and do not offer great opportunities to use more complex statistical methods”[2].The occurring theoretical and methodological analysis allows us to deduce that, to date, pre-school pedagogy is missing the methodologies that examine the environmental competence of children at pre-school age. This is precisely why the article proposed the standardized version of the projective methodology for investigating the ecological competence of pre-school children. The scientific-research goal of our methodology is to investigate the emotional intelligence of the child that affects the feeling of experiencing contact with the environment (as a habitat for all living creatures). The suggested diagnostic procedure is a modification of the Index of Compatibility for Children and Adolescents, Brenda K. Bryant.We believe that the results obtained from the projective methodology proposed by us could effectively serve to determine the ecological competence of pre-school children.

SEAGRASS RESTORATION: AN UPDATE FROM TRANG PROVINCE, SOUTHWESTERN THAILAND

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Prasert Tongnunui ◽  
Prasert Tongnunui ◽  
Woraporn Tarangkoon ◽  
Woraporn Tarangkoon ◽  
Parichat Hukiew ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Survival Rate ◽  
Habitat Restoration ◽  
Natural Habitat ◽  
Donor Site ◽  
Limiting Factor ◽  
Seagrass Bed ◽  
Asexual Propagation ◽  
Enhalus Acoroides ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Sexual Propagation

Natural disasters may adversely affect coastal resources potentially leading to coastal habitat restorations that incorporate stakeholders and the general public. Appropriate methodologies for habitat restoration are developed to ensure the outcomes of this project. Currently, seagrass bed restoration by means of asexual and sexual propagation techniques have been used worldwide. However, the experience of seagrass (Enhalus acoroides) habitat restoration in Trang Province noted that to accomplish this project’s strategies involved the application of restoration techniques along with public and stakeholder participation. The application of asexual propagation, specifically the collection of single shoots from donor seagrasses and subsequent transplantation, is a convenient tool. However, from this project results, this process still has conceptual problems as from the large numbers of single shoots collected from donor seagrasses, the survival rate was relatively low. Furthermore, this process was complicated by conflicting interests between local communities near to the donor site and the project’s organizers. In order to reduce said conflicts, other techniques to balance stakeholder interests were instigated by this project, namely the development of both asexual and sexual propagation techniques. This project initiated a sexual propagation technique by the collection of wild seeds of Enhalus acoroides that were subsequently grown in the laboratory before natural habitat transplantation. This project results showed that seeds can be grown rapidly and can be cultured in large numbers. However, this development technique has a limit on rearing time because seedlings were found to be in decline after the third month of the experiment. These problems were compounded by a limiting factor that pushed the project’s organizers to decide to transplant seagrasses from the laboratory to the wild whether a time was seasonally suitable or unsuitable, the planting activity still done forward. This matter may have enhanced the low survival rate situation after seagrass transplantation to the wild. If there is a need to recover a seagrass bed, the above culture and transplantation methodologies should be used in conjunction with repeated periodic plantings until natural ecological function has been restored. In conclusion, further research should be instigated to improve the cultivation method for producing ready to plant seedlings and to improve methods of project operation.

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