The regional anatomy of the human integument with special reference to the distribution of hair follicles, sweat glands and melanocytes

1967 ◽  
Vol 252 (779) ◽  
pp. 447-485 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Regional Variation ◽  
Regional Differences ◽  
Basal Layer ◽  
Skin Surface ◽  
Absolute Number ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
The Body ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
The Face

The regional anatomy of human skin is discussed in terms of ( a ) the regional variation of the architectural pattern of the basal layer of the epidermis, ( b ) the regional variation in the distribution of hair follicles and eccrine sweat glands, and the regional variation in the distribution of melanocytes. ( a ) The architecture of the basal layer is regionally specific. The epidermis of the cheek is almost flat between the numerous hair follicles. Regions under tension have parallel ridges that end abruptly (neck, breast, abdomen); regions with a thick keratin or mucous layer have deep ridges with circular imprints of tall dermal papillae (sole, palm, knee, heel and oral mucosa). Elsewhere in the epidermis the creases of the skin surface divide the pattern of the basal layer into diamond-shaped areas where the imprints of the dermal papillae are to be seen. ( b ) There is great individual and regional variation in the distribution of hair follicles and sweat ducts:700 + 40 hair follicles per cm 2 were counted on the face, but only 65 + 5 in the rest of the body. The corresponding density for eccrine sweat glands was 270 + 25 in the face and 160 + 15 in the rest of the body. There are altogether about two million hair follicles and three million sweat glands in the integument. The epidermal appendages are symmetrically distributed; there is no significant difference between male and female in the density of hairs or sweat glands. The density of appendages is much higher in the foetus and in the infant than in the adult. Numerical estimates have shown that the differential rate of growth of the body surface may be solely responsible for regional differences in the density of appendages. A uniformly distributed foetal population of appendages would become ‘diluted’ three times more on the trunk and extremities than on the head during postnatal growth. The numerical ratio of sweat ducts/hair follicles is the same throughout foetal and postnatal life. ( c ) On the average there are about 1500 epidermal melanocytes/mm 2 of skin surface, excluding those in hair follicles. The total number of epidermal melanocytes in an adult is about 2000 million. They occur consistently in the basal layer of the epidermis of ‘white’ human skin (including the oral and nasal cavities). Their absolute number and their proportion to the keratinizing basal Malpighian cells are constant and characteristic in given regions. The distribution of melanocytes is also bilaterally symmetrical and their regional frequency is the same in male and female. The individual and regional variations of melanocyte distribution are, however, great. There are two or three times as many melanocytes per unit area in the epidermis of the cheek or forehead as in the other regions of the integument. Because melanocytes are mostly located on ridges, the numerical ratio of Malpighian cells/melanocytes is lower on than between the ridges. The cause of the great regional variation of melanocytes is not known. The regional differences are smaller in foetal than in adult skin. Regional differences in the degree of expansion of the body surface by growth cannot, however, explain the regional variation in the adult. Melanocyte density in the foetus is lower than in the adult, and in old epidermis a decrease in melanocyte density is one of the manifestations of ageing. Comparisons of the frequency distribution of melanocytes reveal no significant difference between the various human races. The degree of melanization of skin therefore depends not only on the number of melanocytes, but, more particularly, on their physiological activity in melanogenesis. The absolute number of melanocytes and the ratio of Malpighian cells/melanocytes are high enough to allow melanocytes to make contact with every Malpighian cell and so to disseminate melanin through the entire basal layer of the epidermis.

Independence of brain and tympanic temperatures in an unanesthetized human

1988 ◽  
Vol 65 (1) ◽  
pp. 482-486 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Shiraki ◽  
S. Sagawa ◽  
F. Tajima ◽  
A. Yokota ◽  
M. Hashimoto ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Skin Surface ◽  
The Body ◽  
Tympanic Temperature ◽  
The Face ◽  
Series Of Experiments ◽  
Long Term Monitoring ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Term Monitoring ◽  
Monitoring Temperature

Temperature within the brain and the esophagus and at the tympanum were obtained in a 12-yr-old male in a series of experiments that began 8 days after surgery for implantation of a drainage catheter. Fanning the face did reduce tympanic temperature but not temperature in the brain; brain temperatures followed esophageal temperatures. In long-term monitoring, temperature in the lateral ventricle was 0.5 degree C above esophageal temperature and 0.2 degree C below that in white matter 1 cm above, with the offsets fixed throughout the overnight cycle. All temperatures went through similar excursions when the face was excluded from fanning applied to the body. These observations highlight the fact that in humans the defense against hyperthermia takes advantage of cooling distributed over the entire skin surface.

scholarly journals SKIN SURFACE CHEMISTRY AS A DIAGNOSTIC TOOL FOR SKIN DISEASES

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (01) ◽  
Author(s):  
Liqaa Samir Esmail
Keyword(s):  
Optical Imaging ◽  
Chronic Wounds ◽  
Skin Diseases ◽  
Sense Organ ◽  
Skin Barrier ◽  
Skin Surface ◽  
Skin Layer ◽  
The Body ◽  
Non Invasive ◽  
The Face

The skin is the biggest sense organ in the body, with a surface area of 1.7m2 in adults. Because standard histological procedures influence skin components, several dermatological research has had little effectiveness in showing skin function. The structure of each skin layer may now be visualised non-invasively thanks to recent advances in non-invasive optical imaging. Individual skin components, on the other hand, remain difficult to identify. Understanding skin's chemical and physical features helps the cosmetics sector create deodorant, lipstick, and moisturizers. In addition, PH regulates the activation of proteases linked to the formation of chronic wounds and impacts skin barrier functions. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive optical imaging innovation that creates high-resolution photos of the face and cross-areas of the skin. While OCT has a lot of potentials, many dermatologists are unfamiliar with it. This article aims to give professional dermatologists a basic grasp of skin OCT concepts and clinical applications.

scholarly journals A Morphological and Histological Investigation of the Sinus Interdigitalis in Konya Merino Sheep

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (8) ◽  
pp. 1509-1513
Author(s):  
Zekeriya Özüdoğru ◽  
Ramazan İlgün ◽  
Derviş Özdemir
Keyword(s):  
Hair Follicles ◽  
The Body ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Histological Investigation ◽  
Sebaceous Glands ◽  
Morphometric Measurements ◽  
Merino Sheep ◽  
Inner Surface ◽  
Histological Characteristics ◽  
Neck Part

In the study, it was aimed to reveal the morphological, morphometric and histological characteristics of sinus interdigitalis found in the fore and hind feet of Konya merino sheep. For this purpose, the fore and hind feet of 10 Konya merino sheep, weighing between 44-79 kg, were used. Sinus interdigitalis were dissected out from the feet, and after morphometric measurements were made, morphological examinations were performed and photographed. The shape of the sinus interdigitalis, present in all the forefeet and hind feet, resembled a pipe consisting of neck and body. It was determined that the neck part was longer than the body at all feet. The inner surface of the gland was covered with hair, and there was more hair on the neck than on the body. The weight of the gland, body length and diameter, flexura, canal length and diameter were measured morphometrically. In the measurements made, it was determined that all the values of the forefeet were higher than the hind feet. In histological examination, it was found that the wall of the sinus interdigitalis consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis and fibrous capsule, and in the dermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, m. arrector pili and sweat glands were found.

Comparative Study on Distribution of Sebaceous and Sweat Glands in Skin of Different Domestic Animals

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shweta Raghav ◽  
Varinder Uppal ◽  
Anuradha Gupta
Keyword(s):  
Total Body Weight ◽  
Vital Role ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
The Body ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Sebaceous Glands ◽  
Adult Cattle ◽  
Paraffin Block ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Hematoxylin And Eosin Stain

Background: Skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting for 15-20% of the total body weight and acts as a barrier between the external and internal environment and maintain homeostasis.The sweat and sebaceous glands in dermis of skin play vital role in developing the adaptive ability to the heat stress. Besides this, the distribution pattern and number of these glands vary in different animals that may aid in identification of different species.Methods: The study was conducted on abdominal skin of 36 adult cattle, buffalo, horse, goat, pig and dog (six sample of each) collected from abattoir, Veterinary clinics and post-mortem hall of GADVASU, Ludhiana. After collection, the tissues were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and processed for paraffin block preparation. The paraffin sections of 5-6 µm were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin stain. Result: The study revealed that the sebaceous glands were multilobular, alveolar glands comprised of several layers of epithelial cells and were associated with hair follicles in all species studied. The number of sebaceous glands/mm2 was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in goat (1.60± 0.11) than in pig (0.44±0.06) whereas sebaceous gland diameter was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in buffalo (109.83±6.14 µm) than in goat (61.16 ±2.42 µm).The sweat glands were of saccular and simple coiled tubular type and most of them were associated with hair follicles. The number of sweat glands/mm2 was the highest in horse (3.10 ± 0.24) and the least in buffalo (0.76 ±0.05). Sweat gland diameter was significantly higher (p≤0.05) maximum in buffalo (123±3.15 µm) and minimum in goat (50.33 ±2.85 µm) and the difference.

scholarly journals A genetic basis of variation in eccrine sweat gland and hair follicle density

2015 ◽  
Vol 112 (32) ◽  
pp. 9932-9937 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yana G. Kamberov ◽  
Elinor K. Karlsson ◽  
Gerda L. Kamberova ◽  
Daniel E. Lieberman ◽  
Pardis C. Sabeti ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Hair Follicle ◽  
Genetic Regulation ◽  
Eccrine Sweat Gland ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
The Body ◽  
Chromosome 1 ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Eccrine Gland ◽  
Eccrine Glands ◽  
Eccrine Sweat

Among the unique features of humans, one of the most salient is the ability to effectively cool the body during extreme prolonged activity through the evapotranspiration of water on the skin’s surface. The evolution of this novel physiological ability required a dramatic increase in the density and distribution of eccrine sweat glands relative to other mammals and a concomitant reduction of body hair cover. Elucidation of the genetic underpinnings for these adaptive changes is confounded by a lack of knowledge about how eccrine gland fate and density are specified during development. Moreover, although reciprocal changes in hair cover and eccrine gland density are required for efficient thermoregulation, it is unclear if these changes are linked by a common genetic regulation. To identify pathways controlling the relative patterning of eccrine glands and hair follicles, we exploited natural variation in the density of these organs between different strains of mice. Quantitative trait locus mapping identified a large region on mouse Chromosome 1 that controls both hair and eccrine gland densities. Differential and allelic expression analysis of the genes within this interval coupled with subsequent functional studies demonstrated that the level of En1 activity directs the relative numbers of eccrine glands and hair follicles. These findings implicate En1 as a newly identified and reciprocal determinant of hair follicle and eccrine gland density and identify a pathway that could have contributed to the evolution of the unique features of human skin.

scholarly journals HISTOLOGY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY OF HUMAN SKIN. XV. SITES OF PHOSPHORYLASE AND AMYLO-1,6-GLUCOSIDASE ACTIVITY

1958 ◽  
Vol 6 (3) ◽  
pp. 201-207 ◽  
Author(s):  
RICHARD A. ELLIS ◽  
WILLIAM MONTAGNA
Keyword(s):  
Human Skin ◽  
External Auditory Meatus ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
The Body ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Sebaceous Glands ◽  
Glucosidase Activity ◽  
Stratum Spinosum ◽  
Peripheral Cells ◽  
Eccrine Sweat Glands

The localization of phosphorylase and amylo-1,6-glucosidase activity has been studied in surgical specimens of human skin from the palm, sole, axilla, external auditory meatus, and other representative regions of the body. With few exceptions these enzymes are found in cells which are known to contain glycogen normally. The epidermis shows some variability, but amylo-1,6-glucosidase is generally present in the stratum spinosum, while phosphorylase is found in both the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum. The relative amounts of the enzymes vary with the thickness of the epidermis and with the age of the donor. Growing hair follicles have abundant phosporylase and amylo-1,6-glucosidase in their outer root sheaths, while resting ones contain only phosphorylase. A short portion of the epidermal duct of the eccrine sweat glands has no enzymatic activity, but the remainder of the duct and the secretory portion of the gland is richer in phosphorylase than any other structure of the skin. The apocrine sweat glands have neither enzyme in their secretory coils, but the duct of these glands is rich in phosphorylase. Time sebaceous glands contain both enzymes, but phosphorylase is more concentrated in the peripheral cells of the gland. Neither the centers of the glands nor the sebum contain either enzyme.

scholarly journals DISTRIBUTION OF DEHYDROGENASES IN THE SKIN OF THE RHESUS MONKEY (MACACA MULATTA)

1965 ◽  
Vol 13 (8) ◽  
pp. 668-676 ◽  
Author(s):  
MICHAEL J. C. IM
Keyword(s):  
Rhesus Monkey ◽  
Macaca Mulatta ◽  
Active Sites ◽  
Basal Layer ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Basal Cells ◽  
Outer Root Sheath ◽  
Hair Matrix ◽  
Glutamic Dehydrogenase

The activities of the following dehydrogenase systems were demonstrated in the skin of the rhesus monkey ( Macaca mulatta): succinic, malic, isocitric (DPN and TPN), lactic, α-glycerophosphate, glucose 6-phosphate, 6-phosphogluconate, β-hydroxybutyric and glutamic dehydrogenase. Strong dehydrogenase activity in general is restricted to metabolically active sites such as the basal layer of the epidermis, the outer root sheath of the hair follicles, the hair matrix and bulb, the clear cells of the eccrine sweat glands and the basal cells of the sweat glands. The myelinated fibers of Meissner corpuscles and the inner bulb of the Pacinian corpuscles in the palms and soles abound in all of the dehydrogenases. The enzymes are also abundant in the arrectores pilorum muscles, the endothelium of the arterioles, the fibroblasts and mast cells.

scholarly journals NEUROENDOCRINE AND MAST CELLS OF THE SKIN IN THE AREA OF ACUPUNCTURE

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (1S) ◽  
pp. 22-24 ◽  
Author(s):  
E A Guryanova ◽  
E S Deomidov
Keyword(s):  
Mast Cells ◽  
Basal Layer ◽  
Neuron Specific Enolase ◽  
Acupuncture Point ◽  
Nerve Fibers ◽  
Hair Follicles ◽  
Neuroendocrine Cells ◽  
Sweat Glands ◽  
Acupuncture Points ◽  
Blue Dye

Objective. We studied mast cells and neuroendocrine cells of the skin of adults in the area of the acupuncture points (AP) and outside them. Material and methods. Using the Unna method (polychrome toluidine blue dye), mast cells were detected in the skin. Conducted immunohistochemical study using monoclonal antibodies to neuron-specific enolase and synaptophysin in order to identify neuroendocrine cells. Research results. Analyzed data on the distribution of mast cells in the skin in the area of the acupuncture points in an adult. It was revealed that the distribution of mast cells in the dermis and the hypodermis differs depending on the localization of the acupuncture point. Fat cells take in maintaining homeostasis and regulation of metabolism in the skin. NSE- and synaptophysin-positive cells were detected in the basal layer of the epidermis, in the area of the the muscles that raise the hair, in the area of the hair follicles; in the secretory terminal regions of the sweat glands, as well as outwards from the basement membrane of these regions between the myoepithelial cells. A part of the neuroendocrine cells is in contact with nerve waves. Expression of NSE and synaptophysin depends on AP localization. In AP of the skin of the abdomen and upper limb, a more pronounced expression of NSE and synaptophysin is observed than at the acupuncture points of the skin of the face. The expression of NSE in the structures of the skin in the area of the acupuncture points is more pronounced than the expression of synaptophysin. In the dermis revealed structureless spaces surrounded by mast cells, nerve fibers, blood vessels.

scholarly journals Clinical Features of Children with Abusive Head Injury and Apparent Life-Threatening Events Upon Presentation to a Children’s Hospital

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 1-6
Author(s):  
Donna Mendez
Keyword(s):  
Child Abuse ◽  
Head Injury ◽  
The Body ◽  
Retrospective Case ◽  
Retinal Hemorrhages ◽  
Exact Test ◽  
Fisher's Exact Test ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Fisher’S Exact Test ◽  
The Face

Background: The symptoms of child abuse and ALTE are similar. Diagnosing child abuse in those who present with an ALTE may be difficult since the symptoms are similar, and bruising is not always seen in those abused. Approximately only 50% of infants who have bruising are found to be abused. There is limited literature showing bruises to the face or blood in the nose or mouth are distinguishing features of those abused infants who initially present to the Emergency Department (ED) for ALTE. Objective: To determine if bruises or contusions to the face or body in infants occur more often in those who present to the ED as an ALTE but found to have Abusive Head Injury (AHI) versus those who present as ALTE and not found to have AHI. A secondary aim was to determine if blood in the mouth and/or nose was present in those with ALTE but found to have AHI. Methods: Retrospective case-control study of infants Results: There were 49 patients in the study: 20 AHI and 29 non-AHI. All infants in both groups had apnea as a presenting symptom. There were no differences in race or gender between groups. No patients in the non-AHI group had retinal hemorrhages. There was not a significant difference in CPR performed prior to arriving to the ED between groups. Intubation was performed with higher frequency in the AHI patients than non-AHI patients (62% vs 0%, p=0.002 by Fisher’s Exact Test). All nine patients requiring intubation were in the AHI group and had intracranial bleeds. Bruises were present with higher frequency in the abused than non-abused group (31% vs 0%, P=0.017 by Fisher’s Exact Test). All bruises were found on patients’ bodies and none on their faces. There were 2 patients with blood from the nose but those were in the non-AHI group and had received CPR. Conclusions: Infants with ALTE who have AHI are more likely to present with bruising to the body, retinal hemorrhages, and intracranial bleeds than infants who have AHI. Blood in the nose does not identify those with AHI. The performance of CPR does not differentiate between groups but the need for intubation was associated with AHI.

The Micro-Anatomy of the Mammalian Epidermis

1953 ◽  
Vol s3-94 (28) ◽  
pp. 481-506
Author(s):  
P. B. MEDAWAR
Keyword(s):  
Physiological Activity ◽  
Continuous Process ◽  
Basal Layer ◽  
Genetic System ◽  
Skin Surface ◽  
The Body ◽  
Ground Substance ◽  
Epidermal Layer ◽  
Cell Divisions ◽  
Structure Density

The greater part of the superficial epidermis of mammals is of binary embryological origin, and consists of cells belonging to two distinct division lineages: that of the Malpighian or keratinizing system, and that of the melanocyte or pigmentary system. The melanocyte system can be artificially destroyed, or denied access to the epidermis in development, without impairment of any but the pigmentary activity of skin. The epidermis as a whole is a reproductively self-contained system, i.e. it is perpetuated by the division of cells that reside within the epidermis itself. It is argued that melanocytes as well as Malpighian cells are squamous in character, and that the functional melanocytes of the basal epidermal layer undergo a characteristic sequence of involutionary changes in the course of moving towards the skin surface to be flaked away. It follows that the entire epidermis, and not merely the Malpighian system, undergoes a continuous process of cellular renewal. Cell-divisions certainly occur in the basal epidermal layer; a number of difficulties of interpretation must be overcome before it can be held certain that divisions occur in more superficial layers as well. The Malpighian system has a cellular organization: there is no satisfactory evidence for the existence of intercellular cytoplasmic bridges that would endow it with a syncytial character. ‘Tonofibrils’ probably owe their origin to an artificial coarsening of a fine fibre-protein system within the cytoplasm of prickle cells. Elastic fibres probably play some part in anchoring the epidermis to its substratum; but there is evidence that the epidermis can be freed from the corium by disengaging the downwardly directed processes of Malpighian cells of the basal layer from the concentrated connective tissue ground-substance that forms the inner boundary of the dermo-epidermal interface. All the natural pigments of mammalian skins are melanins; melanocytes are the only seat of melanin formation, and pigmentary activity is the only function they are known to possess. Branches that arise from the perikarya of melanocytes are so arranged that each ends in close apposition to the superficial pole of a Malpighian cell and in some unknown manner causes pigment granules to enter into it. Tyrosine is probably the parental substrate in melanogenesis, and it is unlikely that more than one oxidase is responsible for the enzyme-mediated activities that lead to the formation of melanin. The fine structure and physiological activity of the Malpighian system varies from place to place on the body: many of the differences which appear to be due (and which, it is shown, could have been due) to differences of environment and manner of use are in fact of developmental origin and of ‘cellular genetic’ status. Such differences are conserved through repeated cell-divisions after the transplantation of particular areas of skin to anatomically unnatural environments. The regional anatomy of the melanocyte system is less complex. The melanocytes of the hair bulbs and of the superficial epidermis, responsible for the pigmentation of skin and hair respectively, are artificially interchangeable. It is therefore probable that they represent purely topographical variants of a homogeneous cellular genetic system. Differences of pigmentation between the variously coloured areas of a patched animal are due to differences between the pigmentary activities of individual melanocytes, and these are perpetuated in cellular heredity; they are not due to differences of structure, density, or distribution.

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