Funding and Directing Research or Rewarding Scientific Achievements?

Nuncius ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 34 (2) ◽  
pp. 317-355 ◽  
Author(s):  
Patrice Bret

Abstract This study examines the science and technology prize system of the Académie des Sciences through a first survey of the prizes granted over the period extending from the 1720s to the end of the 19th century. No reward policy was envisaged by the Royal Academy of Sciences in the Réglement (statute) promulgated by King Louis XIV in 1699. Prizes were proposed later, first by private donors and then by the state, and awarded in international contests setting out specific scientific or technical problems for savants, inventors and artists to solve. Using cash prizes, under the Ancien Régime the Academy effectively directed and funded research for specific purposes set by donors. By providing it with significant extra funding, the donor-sponsored prizes progressively gave the Academy relative autonomy from the political power of the state. In the 19th century, with the growing awareness of the importance of scientific research, the main question became whether to use the prizes to reward past achievements or to incentivize future research, and the scale and nature of the prizes changed.

Author(s):  
Klymyshyn O. ◽  
Savytska A.

The history of formation of the bryological herbaria of the State Natural History Museum of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine is considered. Many collectors and scientists-botanists took part in the formation of the main scientific fund of the bryological herbaria, among them A. Lazarenko, K. Ulychna, V. Melnichuk, M. Slobodian and others. The article contains a list of samples of bryophytes, which are included in the Red Book of Ukraine. Rare samples (including doublets and exsiccates) are described from territories of other countries, as well as specimens dating to the end of the 19th century.


Afro-Ásia ◽  
2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Magnus Roberto De Mello Pereira

<p>O presente artigo explora o ideário de Luís Antônio de Oliveira Mendes sobre um conjunto de temas referentes à escravidão e ao regime fundiário na transição do século XVIII para o XIX: o controle da crueldade dos senhores de escravos; a condenação da escravidão perpétua; e a distribuição de terras baldias entre libertos e outros despossuídos. Para entender esse ideário foi preciso compreender e localizar historicamente a origem familiar e o universo da formação intelectual de Oliveira Mendes, da qual fez parte a Universidade de Coimbra e a Academia Real das Ciências de Lisboa.</p><p>Slavery and access to land in Luís Antônio de Oliveira Mendes’ views (1792-1821)</p><p>This article explores Luís Antônio de Oliveira Mendes’ ideas about themes related to slavery and the land ownership regime at the turn of the 19th century: the control of the cruelty of slaveholders; the condemnation of perpetual slavery; and the distribution of unoccupied land to freed and other dispossessed people. In understanding Oliveira Mendes’ ideas, it is necessary to comprehend and historically locate his family origin and of the intellectual formation of Oliveira Mendes, which included the University of Coimbra and the Royal Academy of Sciences in Lisbon.</p><p>Slavery | Anti-slavery | Land distribution | Luso-Brazilian intellectuals</p>


2019 ◽  
Vol 99 (6) ◽  
pp. 7-33
Author(s):  
Marina Frank

This study deals with the diminutive suffixes -chen and -elchen in the Moselfranconian base dialects on both sides of the Luxo-German state border. It covers the entirety of the state of Luxembourg as well as the Moselfranconian dialects of German within the area of investigation of the Linguistic Atlas of the Central Rhine (MRhSA). The study examines the Wenker questionnaires from the end of the 19th century that were collected by Georg Wenker and John Meier as well as a second and third series of data in the form of Wenker questionnaires that were collected in the 1920s by Richard Huss and data from the MRhSA collected in the 1980s. Building on Edelhoff (2016), who analyses the development of diminutive plurals and plural diminutives in German and Luxemburgish dialects, and Edelhoff (2017a, 2017b) this study provides a closer look on the forms of the diminutive suffix in the singular, particularly of the two lexemes Augenblickchen ,moment.dim’ and Stückchen ,piece.dim’. It is not only a matter of general concern to show the spatial distribution of the suffix forms ‑chen and ‑elchen in the base dialects, but it attempts to shed some light on language-dynamic processes taking place. Specifically, this involves taking a closer look at the following questions: 1) Can language change in the direction of the prestige variety of Central Luxemburgish on the Luxemburgish and in the direction of Standard German on the German side of the state border be shown, in the sense of the Language Dynamics Approach (Schmidt/Herrgen 2011)? 2) Can Edelhoff’s (2016) constatation that the state border has become a dialect border with regard to the use of the diminutive plural suffix also be demonstrated for the diminutive singular suffix variants ‑chen and ‑elchen? 3) Is there geolinguistic evidence for the thesis that the morphological variant ‑elchen is a fusion of the suffixes -lein and -chen? This article provides a preliminary answer to these questions and sketches some lines of inquiry for future research.


Author(s):  
Svetlana Pirozhok

The relevance of determining the theoretical and methodological determinants of the Robert von Moll’s concept of the social state is due to the need to determine the patterns of evolution of ideas about the state and law, as well as the need to assess the ability to use the potential of the Robert von Moll’s theoretical and legal heritage, his predecessors and contemporaries to identify the optimal model of the social state. Modern Russia attempts to build such state. The proclamation and consolidation of Russia as a social state governed by the rule of law at the constitutional level requires attention both to the experiments carried out in social and legal development, and to the practices of social reform, and also to those ideas that have not yet been embodied. The ideas of European scholars regarding the evolution of the state-legal organization of society in the early modern period, based on which Robert von Mohl (1799–1875) developed original concepts of a social state and a state governed by the rule of law are discussed in the article. An analysis of the state of European political and legal thought and identification of the factors that have a significant impact on the development of Robert von Mohl’s doctrine of a social state governed by the rule of law are the purposes of the scientific article. The methodological basis of the study was the dialectical-materialistic, general scientific (historical, systemic) and special (historical-legal, comparativelegal) methods of legal research. The method of reconstruction and interpretation of legal ideas had great importance. As a result of the study, it was concluded that in the first half of the 19th century in European political and legal thought various approaches was formed to consider the problems of social protection and how to resolve them. The development trend of European political science became the transition from ideas and principles formed in the conditions of police states and enlightened absolutism to the ideas of a state governed by the rule of law (constitutional) that protects the rights and freedoms of a citizen. At the same time, it was a question of the rights and freedoms of only a part of the population: the proletariat growing in number and significance was not always evaluated as an independent social stratum. The axiological principles of state justification have also changed. Rights and utility principle became dominant principles. In the first half of the 19th century the social issue as an independent scientific problem of the European political and legal thought was not posed and not systematically developed. Questions about the social essence of the state, the specifics of the implementation of the state social function, the features of public administration in the new stage of socio-economic development of society predetermined the emergence of the idea of a social state. This idea was comprehensively characterized in the Robert von Mohl’s works. He went down in the history of political and legal thought as founder of the concepts of social and governed by the rule of law state.


1977 ◽  
Vol 17 (192) ◽  
pp. 111-127 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles Zorgbibe

“Whenever a large organized group believes it has the right to resist the sovereign power and considers itself capable of resorting to arms, war between the two parties should take place in the same manner as between nations…” This statement by de Vattel in the 19th century seemed destined to take its place as a part of positive law, constituting part of what was known as recognition of belligerency, tantamount to the recognition by the established government of an equal status for insurgents and regular belligerents. When a civil war became extensive enough, the State attacked would understand that it was wisest to acknowledge the existence of a state of war with part of the population. This would, at the same time, allow the conflict to be seen in a truer light. The unilateral action of the legal government in recognizing belligerency would be the condition for granting belligerent rights to the parties. It would constitute a demonstration of humanity on the part of the government of the State attacked and would also provide that government with prospects for effective pursuit of the war. By admitting that it was forced to resort to war, it would at least have its hands free to make war seriously.


2020 ◽  
pp. 83-105
Author(s):  
Boris V. Nosov ◽  
Lyudmila P. Marney

The article is devoted to the problems of the regional policy of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century discussed in the latest Russian historiography, to the peculiarities of the state-legal status and administrative practice of the Kingdom of Poland. It was the time when basic principles and a special structure of management at the outlying regions of the empire were developed, and when special (historical, national, and cultural) regions were formed on the periphery of the Empire. The policy of the Russian government in relation to the Kingdom of Poland depended both on the fundamental trends in the international relations in Central and Eastern Europe (as reflected in international treaties), as well as on the internal political development of the empire, and the peculiarities of political, legal, social, economic, cultural processes in the Kingdom and on Polish lands in Austria and Prussia. All these aspects have an impact on the debate that historians and legal experts are conducting on the state and legal status of parts of the lands of the former Principality of Warsaw that were included in the Russian Empire in 1815 by the decision of the Congress of Vienna. The fundamental political principles of the Russian Empire in the Kingdom of Poland in the first half of the 19th century were a combination of autocracy (with individual elements of enlightened absolutism), based on centralized bureaucratic control, and relatively decentralized political, administrative and estate structures, which assumed the presence of local self-government.


2019 ◽  
pp. 219-246
Author(s):  
Pablo Martínez Riquelme

Los procesos de producción de espacios turísticos se expresan en sendas espacio-temporales, asociadas a una producción material, como las infraestructuras, equipamiento y conectividad, pero también en una producción inmaterial, basada en la difusión de imaginarios territoriales vinculados a la experiencia turística. Se busca analizar dicho proceso, en la Araucanía andino-lacustre chilena, entre 1900-1940, a partir de los relatos de los primeros viajeros con motivaciones turísticas a finales del siglo XIX y el rol de Estado como actor promotor de la turistificación del territorio en el sur de Chile. The processes of production of tourist spaces are expressed in space-time paths, associated with a material production, such as infrastructures, equipment and connectivity, but also in an immaterial production, based on the diffusion of territorial imaginaries linked to the tourist experience. It is sought to analyze this process, in the Chilean Andean-lacustrine Araucanía, between 1900-1940, based on the account of the first travelers with tourist motivations at the end of the 19th century and the role of the State as a promoter of the touristification of the territory in the South of Chile.


Sociologija ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 59 (2) ◽  
pp. 189-205 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nena Vasojevic ◽  
Mirko Filipovic

In the 19th century, at the time when Serbia was being established, the education of students scholars abroad was viewed as one of the main tools for professional development and a strong society. Medical students were one of the first who were sent to study abroad. This practice was associated with increasing vertical social mobility of society. The results achieved in the 19th century encouraged us to focus on the study of temporary migrations of students scholars from Serbia in the 21st century. This article was created as a result of this study.4 Our goal was to define the profile of medical students scholars who studied abroad in the 21st century thanks to the state funds, to determine the reasons why they opted for education outside their country, and to determine the level of openness of the Serbian society towards them. However, the main objective was to contribute to the research of reverse migration.


2013 ◽  
Vol 45 (1) ◽  
pp. 71-91 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pascale Ghazaleh

AbstractIn this article, I argue that commercial legislation promulgated and implemented in Egypt during the first half of the 19th century was one of several factors that diminished the effect of merchants’ social networks, reduced merchants’ identity to a purely professional dimension, and made profit dependent upon association with the state. The transformation of merchants’ social roles was not part of a natural evolution toward modernization and the specialized division of labor. Rather, it resulted from interactions between state-building endeavors, pressures from established merchants who sought to parry threats to their position while profiting from new business opportunities, and an influx of merchants from outside the Ottoman sultanate, who could draw neither on personal connections nor on knowledge of local markets but instead had to depend on the protection of the European consulates and the influence of the growing Egyptian state apparatus.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Krunoslav Puškar

This thesis deals with the analysis and description of the historical and contemporary anthroponymy of the Kalnik area of the Prigorje region on the basis of both archival and field research carried out throughout a longer period of time. Since there has not been any extensive onomastic reasearch in the very area to date, our goal was to determine the influence of linguistic and extralinguistic changes in the reaserched onomastic categories. The introduction of this thesis provides the geographical, sociohistorical, demographical and linguistic context of the researched area, whereas the subsequent chapters provide a list and analysis of confirmed first names, personal and family nicknames, as well as family names of the reaserched area. First names were researched during nine time periods with a duration of five years, beginning from 1802 and ending in 2014. Because of a wide researched area, we limited our research on the anthroponymic repertoire of the city of Križevci, in which 3020 first names (1579 male and 1441 female names) were confirmed. In the 19th century, during five analysed time periods, 1519 first names were confirmed, out of which 814 male and 705 female names, which were mostly simple based on their structure (91.64%). Concerning the provenance of the first names, we established that almost all names were either Christian names or translated Christian names and that national names occur very rarely and sporadically, only in the second half of the 19th century. By comparison, in the 20th and 21st century, during the last four time periods, 1501 first names have been confirmed, out of which 765 were male and 736 female names. Concerning their structure, they turned out to be mostly compound first names in the 1946- 1950 time period (55.69%), whereas in the 2010-2014 time period they turned out to be predominantly single (97.02%). Concerning their provenance, in the 1946-1950 time period 48.39% of male and 57.58% of female national names were confirmed, whereas in the last time period male national names amount to 4.05%, and female national names to only 1.27%. Personal nicknames are a special anthroponymic category which has not been researched in the Kalnik area. Having limited our field research on 13 places throughout the area, we confirmed 288 real personal nicknames, 245 male and 43 female nicknames, of mostly simple structure (95.14%), which are still mostly used in oral and informal communication. The motivation behind the nicknames has faithfully shown us the extralinguistic reality of the researched area. The most frequent motivational group of nicknames is the one of unknown motivation (23.96%), while the other confirmed groups are nicknames motivated by a first name (12,15%), a physical characteristic of the owner (12.15%), another characteristic of the owner (11,81%), a specific word used by the owner (8.33%), an animal (6.94%), a family name (6.60%), an occupation (6.25%), an ethnonym or toponym (4.51%), a family or social role (2.78%), a professional designation (1.38%), food (1.04%), a name for a plant (1.04%), a subject (0.69%), and another nickname (0.35%). The high frequency of nicknames of unknown motivation shows us the importance of future research of this anthroponymic category because, due to the passage of time, it is difficult to determine the real motivation of every nickname. We came to the same conclusion during our research of family nicknames, another specific anthroponymic category, still quite present in the Kalnik area. Having limited our field research on 12 places throughout the wide researched area, we managed to confirm 173 real family nicknames, whose designated motivational groups provided us with important sociolinguistic pieces of information. Concerning their structure, the majority of family nicknames turned out to be simple (N = 129), whereas concerning their motivation, the majority of family nicknames were of unknown motivation (N = 33). Other motivational groups were the following: a first name (N = 27), an occupation (N = 27), a family name (N = 25), a personal nickname (N = 22), a certain characteristic (N = 13), an ethnonym (N = 10), a toponym (N = 6), a certain subject (N = 6), and an animal (N = 4). All these mentioned different anthroponymic categories (first names, personal and family nicknames) can be confirmed profusely in the last anthroponymic category researched and analysed in this thesis – family names. Having employed the criterion of their minimum continuity of 100 years in the researched area, we have managed to confirm 1360 family names with centuries old continuity, since the 14th century to this very day. With this criterion we also managed to reduce a significant number of over 3000 family names with mostly no continuity, as well as to confirm those last names which had left their trace in the researched area. Of course, not all family names confirmed by this criterion are necessarily connected to the researched area, but are only detected in it. Out of 1360 confirmed family names, we succeeded in determining 189 family names which occur exclusively or mostly in the researched area, 100 family names which do not occur in contemporary anthroponymy of the area, and 97 family names which could also become extinguished in near future. Concerning their structure, the majority of all family names occur without a suffix (N = 681). All the confirmed family names were analysed according to their structure and motivation and listed in our Lexicon of family names at the end of this very thesis.


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