Normal Science

Nuncius ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 34 (2) ◽  
pp. 356-376 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sven Widmalm
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Technological Innovations ◽  
Normal Science ◽  
Improved Method ◽  
Royal Swedish Academy ◽  
High Quality ◽  
National Science ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
High Originality

Abstract Prizes have been awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from its foundation in 1739 onwards. In the 18th century these were of a kind typical of the period: problems were posed, almost always with a utilitarian bent, and awards (money or medals) were promised to those who could come up with practical solutions. The Academy’s first prize question, in 1739, concerned an improved method for bleaching cloth; the response was zero, a not untypical result. This type of award was never a success, and from around 1810 prizes became more academically oriented and were offered for recent publications or innovations rather than solutions to problems posed beforehand. The Letterstedt Prize was the most important among these awards during the 19th century, and a model for the Nobel Prize. It was awarded mostly for work in the natural sciences, but sometimes also in the humanities or for technological innovations (Alfred Nobel received it in 1868); a special prize was awarded for translations. An analysis of nominations and discussions preserved in the Academy’s archive shows that the Letterstedt science prizes functioned as a kind of benchmarking of national science (foreigners were not awarded on principle); high-quality “normal” science that seemed to put Swedish science on par with research in countries like Germany or France was awarded rather than work of high originality.

Russian Meteorological Investigations in China in the 19th Century

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tatiana Feklova
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Far East ◽  
Scientific Network ◽  
Historical Archive ◽  
Russian State ◽  
Meteorological Observatory ◽  
History Of ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the Russian Magneto-Meteorological Observatory (RMMO) in Beijing has not been extensively researched. Sources for this information are Russian (the Russian State Historical Archive, Saint Petersburg Branch of the Archive of the Academy of Sciences, Russian National Library) and Chinese (the First Historical Archive of Beijing, the Library of the Shanghai Zikavey Observatory) archives. These archival materials can be scientifically and methodologically analyzed. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Russian Orthodox Mission (ROM) was founded in the territory of Beijing. Existing until 1955, the ROM performed an important role in the development of Russian–Chinese relations. Russian scientists could only work in Beijing through the ROM due to China’s policy of fierce self-isolation. The ROM became the center of Chinese academic studies and the first training school for Russian sinologists. From its very beginning, it was considered not only a church or diplomatic mission but a research center in close cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences. In this context, the RMMO made important weather investigations in China and the Far East in the 19th century. The RMMO, as well as its branch stations in China and Mongolia, part of a scientific network, represented an important link between Europe and Asia and was probably the largest geographical scientific network in the world at that time.

Some Relations Between the Stockholm and Tartu Observatories During the 19th Century

2011 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Lindberg
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Royal Swedish Academy ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century

AbstractThis article introduces the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the old Stockholm Observatory. It focuses on the Swedish astronomers Jöns Svanberg and Nils H. Selander, and on their work with the Struve Geodetic Arc. The particular relations to the Tartu Observatory through Oskar Backlund and the contemporary Swedish astronomers in Stockholm are traced.

scholarly journals Contribution of Russian zoologists to the collecting and first descriptions of the World avian fauna

2018 ◽  
Vol 322 (2) ◽  
pp. 144-159 ◽  
Author(s):  
V.A. Payevsky
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Museum Collections ◽  
Genetic Studies ◽  
Geographical Society ◽  
The World ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
First Descriptions

A brief overview is given of the formation of museum collections of birds in Russia, collected as a result of academic expeditions around the world and across Russia. The imperishable value of zoological collections, concentrated in zoological museums and institutes, is underlined. The results of expeditions are described in chronology, beginning with 18th century (they were conducted under the auspices of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Imperial Russian Geographical Society): the First Siberian expedition (D.G. Messershmidt), the First Kamchatka and the Great Northern expeditions (V.I. Bering, А.I. Chirikov, G.F. Müller, G.V. Stöller, I.G. Gmelin, S.P. Krasheninnikov), Great academic expeditions across Russia (P.S. Pallas, S.G. Gmelin, I.A. Güldenstädt, I.I. Lepyokhin, I.P. Falk, I.G. Georgi), round-the-world sea expeditions (I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky, F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev, F.G. Kittlitz and A.K. Mertens), as well as expeditions to Brazil (G. I. Langsdorf and E.P. Menetries) and expedition of I.G. Voznesensky in Russian America, the Commanders and Kamchatka. Reference is made to the importance of zoological expeditions of K.F. von Baer, A.F. Middendorf, G.I. Radde, N.A. Severtsov, M.N. Bogdanov, G.E. and M.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo. Particular attention is paid to the great Asian campaigns to Central Asia in the late XIX – early XX century of NM. Przevalsky, V.I. Roborovsky, P.K. Kozlov, G.N. Potanin, M.V. Pevtsov, B.L. Grombchevsky, M.A. Pyltsov and N.A. Zarudny. The contribution of the ornithologists of Russia M.N.Bogdanov, M.M. Berezovsky, M.A. Menzbir, V.L. Bianchi, F.D. Pleske, V.I. Dybowski, V.A. Godlewski, M.I. Jankowski, V.K. Taczanowski, P.P. Sushkin and S.A. Buturlin to the bird systematics at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of XX century is described. In conclusion, it is said about the unique value of zoological collections for the study of taxonomy and phylogeny, including on the basis of molecular genetic studies.

scholarly journals Museum of Classical Archeology of the 19th-century Imperial Academy of Sciences: The history of organizing and transferring collections to the Imperial Hermitage

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 13-27
Author(s):  
Margarita F. Khartanovich ◽  
◽  
Maria V. Khartanovich ◽  
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Fine Arts ◽  
Precious Metals ◽  
Ancient Greek ◽  
Classical Archaeology ◽  
Archaeological Collections ◽  
Imperial Academy ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century

The Museum of Classical Archeology of the Imperial Academy of Sciences is the successor to the 18th-century Kunstkamera of the Academy of Sciences in term of collections of classical antiquities. This article discusses in detail the stages of development of the Museum of Classical Archaeology as an institution within the structure of the Academy of Sciences through the Cabinet of Medals and Rarities, Numismatic Museum, and the Museum of Classical Archaeology. The fund of the museum consisted of ancient Greek and Roman coins, ancient Russian coins, coins from oriental cultures, ancient Greek vases, antiquities from ornamental stone, glass, precious metals, impressions of medals and coins, items from archaeological excavations and treasures, manuscripts, drawings of objects and photographs. Special attention is paid to the correlation of the possibilities of museum collections of the Academy of Sciences and the Imperial Hermitage in terms of storage, exhibition, research, and promotion of archaeological collections in the second half of the 19th century. The reasons for the very active transfer of the Academy of Sciences’ archaeological collections to the Hermitage in the 19th century and the types of compensation received by the Academy for the collections are discussed. The first archaeological collections donated from the Academy of Sciences to the Hermitage on the initiative of the chairman of the Imperial Archaeological Commission S. G. Stroganov were the “Siberian collection” of Peter I and the Melgunov treasure. The collection of the Museum of Classical Archeology also attracted the attention of art critic I. V. Tsvetaev when arranging funds for the new Museum of Fine Arts at Moscow University. The article introduces into scientific circulation archival documents, showing the state of the museum work in the 19th century in the institution of the Academy of Sciences, documents depicting the structure of the Museum of Classical Archaeology, and the composition of collections.

scholarly journals A form of creating historical consciousness: The Russian academy and Varangian question

2015 ◽  
pp. 471-486
Author(s):  
Djordje Djuric
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Historical Consciousness ◽  
Russian History ◽  
Russian People ◽  
Peter The Great ◽  
Russian State ◽  
The Social ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Ideological Attitudes

The establishment of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg gave a great impetus to the development of historiography in Russia, and likewise to the development of other sciences. The idea of establishing the Academy of Sciences in Russia came from Peter the Great. Because there did not exist a system of higher education or a university in Russia at that time, scientists who were to become the first members of the Academy, had to be brought in from abroad. The enlightened ruler did not regret spending effort and money for this purpose. Large sums of money were assigned to the purchase of books and to the salaries and awards of the future members of the Academy. The Academy started its activities in December 1725, and during the first few decades it was led by scientists from abroad, mainly from German countries. That was also the case with the Humanities Section, which, among other things, supposed to deal with Russian history. The bases for work at the Russian Academy in St. Petersburg in the following decades were set by: Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer, Gerhard Friedrich M?ller and August Ludwig von Schl?zer. On the bases of the Russian historical material that they collected, primarily Nestorov letopis (Nestor?s chronicle) that describes the events of the 9th century, they came to far-reaching conclusions about the origin of the Russian people and the establishment of the Russian state and its institutions. This way was opened the so called Varangian question and formulated Norman theory of the origin of the Russians. In the first half of the 18th century, Russian historian Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev, academician Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and other Russian scientists opposed to these theories. During the 19th century, these theories were accepted, with certain modifications, by the most distinguished Russian bourgeois historians Karamzin, Soloviev, Pagodin and others. The Bolsheviks mostly rejected these theories or they were simplified and reduced to the social segment that the Russian people were oppressed, and that the majority the oppressor elite was of foreign origin. As is the case with the interpretations of many historical events and processes, the conclusions related to the Varangian question and Norman theory were widely influenced by the time in which the author wrote, and by his political and ideological attitudes. That was perhaps more pronounced in this case, because it was the question of the origin and ethnogenesis of the Russian people and the establishment of the Russian state and its institutions.

scholarly journals Scientific journeys to one of the oldest copper cementation sites in Central Europe (Smolník, Slovakia)

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 179-196
Author(s):  
Pavel Hronček ◽  
Bohuslava Gregorová ◽  
Dana Tometzová ◽  
Miloš Jesenský
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Technological Progress ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Commercial Production ◽  
High Quality ◽  
Mining Town ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Export Product

Abstract. The process of copper cementation has already been known since the period of antiquity in Europe. Nevertheless, the first historically relevant reports come from the 14th century from the mining town of Smolník in Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia), which makes this site the oldest place of the commercial production of copper using cementation in Europe. It is one of the oldest known sites in the world after China, where this process has been used since the 11th century. The cementation copper from Smolník was considered to be a high-quality copper in the period between the 14th and 19th century and was an important export product of Hungary. The study processes the history of cementation and discusses the production process of the artificial cementation water, as well as its subsequent mining and sedimentation. A detailed description of the technological progress of cementation from the earliest times up to the first half of the 19th century is given. The study is based upon the historical works of medieval alchemists and the first miners and naturalists, which were published as early scientific books in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. These findings are complemented by original archival research.

scholarly journals Leonhardi Euleri Opera omnia: Editing the works and correspondence of Leonhard Euler

2015 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 13-35 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andreas Kleinert ◽  
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
World War ◽  
Chronological Order ◽  
Joint Project ◽  
Economic Problems ◽  
Material Basis ◽  
Leonhard Euler ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century

The paper gives an overview on the history and present state of the edition of the complete works of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783). After several failed initiatives in the 19th century, the project began in 1907 with the edition of Euler’s printed works. The works were divided into three series: I. Mathematics (29 volumes); II. Mechanics and Astronomy (31 volumes); and III. Physics and Miscellaneous (12 volumes). After several ups and downs due to two World Wars and economic problems, the publication of the printed works with a total of 72 volumes is nearly finished. Only two volumes on perturbation theory in astronomy are still missing. The publication of series IV (manuscripts and correspondence) started in 1967 as a joint project of the Swiss and the Soviet academies of sciences. The manuscript edition was postponed, and the project focussed on Euler’s correspondence which contains approximately 3000 letters, 1000 of them written by Euler. The correspondents include famous mathematicians of the 18th century like d’Alembert, Clairaut and the Bernoullis, but also many less-known people with whom Euler corresponded on a great variety of subjects. A major problem is to find and to finance appropriate editors who are able to read French, Latin, and the old German handwriting, and who are acquainted with history, culture and science of the 18th century. During the last 50 years, the editors gathered copies or scans of most of the preserved Euler’s letters. The original letters addressed to Euler were made available to the editorial group in Switzerland by the Russian Academy of Sciences before World War I, and before their restitution in 1947 the editors made fairly good photographs that are now an important part of the material basis of the edition. Each volume of the letter series (VIA) contains Euler’s correspondence with one or more of his contemporaries, presented in a chronological order. Up to the present day, four volumes of the correspondence have been published, in addition to an inventory of all known letters to and from Euler, including short summaries and useful information about the date, language and location of the existing copies, and former publication. Four more volumes are in progress and will be published in 2016 or 2017. The remaining letters that are not intended for publication in the printed volumes are planned to be made available in an online edition.

The Department of Ethnology in the scientific life of Lev Pavlovich Lashchuk

2019 ◽  
Vol 48 (4) ◽  
pp. 5-17
Author(s):  
Victor Karlov ◽  
Natalya P. Mironova
Keyword(s):  
Ussr Academy ◽  
Academic Career ◽  
Komi Republic ◽  
Scientific School ◽  
State University ◽  
High Quality ◽  
National Science ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
Moscow State University ◽  
Scientific Life

The authors give an overview of the academic career of Professor L.P. Lashuk. He was one of the leading professors of the Department of Ethnography (now Ethnology) of Moscow State University in the 1960-1980-ies. L.P. Lashuk received his degree at the Department in 1950, having obtained high-quality training. This enabled him to work successfully and fruitfully until 1960 in Syktyvkar, at the Komi branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He obtained national recognition for contributing greatly to the development of ethnography of the peoples of the Komi Republic. Having returned to Moscow to work at the History Faculty of the Moscow State University, the scholar used his rich experience in the field, expanded his research interests, became one of the Russian leading ethnologists, founded his scientific school. The authors believe that the Department of Ethnology played a tremendous role in the formation of LP. Lashuk as a professional, one of the most prominent representatives of national science among "second generation" professors of the Department of Ethnography.

Alma Mater Studiorum. O genezie i początkach uniwersytetów

2017 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 9-22
Author(s):  
Marek Maciejewski
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Canon Law ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Ancient Greece ◽  
Roman Law ◽  
Institutions Of Higher Education ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
New Era ◽  
Conducting Research ◽  
The 19Th Century

The origin of universities reaches the period of Ancient Greece when philosophy (sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, stoics and others) – the “Queen of sciences”, and the first institutions of higher education (among others, Plato’s Academy, Cassiodorus’ Vivarium, gymnasia) came into existence. Even before the new era, schools having the nature of universities existed also beyond European borders, including those in China and India. In the early Middle Ages, those types of schools functioned in Northern Africa and in the Near East (Baghdad, Cairo, Constantinople, cities of Southern Spain). The first university in the full meaning of the word was founded at the end of the 11th century in Bologna. It was based on a two-tiered education cycle. Following its creation, soon new universities – at first – in Italy, then (in the 12th and 13th century) in other European cities – were established. The author of the article describes their modes of operation, the methods of conducting research and organizing students’ education, the existing student traditions and customs. From the very beginning of the universities’ existence the study of law was part of their curricula, based primarily on the teaching of Roman law and – with time – the canon law. The rise of universities can be dated from the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modernity. In the 17th and 18th century they underwent a crisis which was successfully overcome at the end of the 19th century and throughout the following one.

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