scholarly journals Pro and Anti-inflammatory Cytokine Production in CD4+ T Lymphocytes in Children with Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis Exposed to the Monocyte Locomotion Inhibitory Factor (MLIF)

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sara Rojas-Dotor ◽  
Adriana González-Hernández ◽  
Francisco León-Aguilar ◽  
Víctor Juárez-Téllez ◽  
Patricia Gómez de León-Cruces
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
Allergic Rhinitis ◽  
T Lymphocytes ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
Inhibitory Factor ◽  
Expression Levels ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Children With Asthma ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Entamoeba histolytica produces, in axenic culture, the monocytes locomotion inhibitory factor (MLIF), a oligopeptide with selective anti-inflammatory properties. We evaluated the effect of MLIF on the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in CD4+ T lymphocytes from children with asthma and allergic rhinitis. Twelve children with severe asthma, 12 children with allergic rhinitis and 6 healthy controls were recruited for this study between May and December 2016. CD4+ T cells were cultured for 24 h at 37°C, 5% CO2 in the presence of MLIF, 1-phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), MLIF+PMA or RPMI. Interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-4, interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) expression levels were measured in the supernatants of T-cell cultures using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines were inhibited by MLIF (IFN-γ p=0.0036, TNF-α p<0.001, IL-4 p=0.0082) in asthmatic patients, however IFN-γ was not significantly inhibited (NS) in patients with allergic rhinitis when compared to the RPMI group. In CD4+ T cells treated with PMA+MLIF, the expression levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-4 were strongly inhibited (p<0.001, p<0.001 and p<0.0094), compared to PMA treatment alone, for both, rhinitis and asthma. IL-10 expression was not affected by MLIF in neither of the two diseases. We conclude that MLIF alters the pro/anti-inflammatory balance and induces inhibition of IL-4, IFN-γ and TNF-α, but does not affect IL-10.

scholarly journals Inflammatory cytokines-stimulated human muscle stem cells ameliorate ulcerative colitis via the IDO-TSG6 axis

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Shengchao Zhang ◽  
Jiankai Fang ◽  
Zhanhong Liu ◽  
Pengbo Hou ◽  
Lijuan Cao ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Ulcerative Colitis ◽  
Stem Cells ◽  
Mesenchymal Stem Cells ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
Human Muscle ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Muscle Stem Cells ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Abstract Background Muscle stem cells (MuSCs) are absolutely required for the formation, repair, and regeneration of skeletal muscle tissue. Increasing evidence demonstrated that tissue stem cells, especially mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), can exert therapeutic effects on various degenerative and inflammatory disorders based on their immunoregulatory properties. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) treated with interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were reported to possess anti-inflammatory functions by producing TNF-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6). However, whether human muscle stem cells (hMuSCs) also possess TSG-6 mediated anti-inflammatory functions has not been explored. Methods The ulcerative colitis mouse model was established by subjecting mice to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water for 7 days. hMuSCs were pretreated with IFN-γ and TNF-α for 48 h and were then transplanted intravenously at day 2 of DSS administration. Body weights were monitored daily. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and TSG-6 in hMuSCs were knocked down with short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA), respectively. Colon tissues were collected for length measurement and histopathological examination. The serum level of IL-6 in mice was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were performed to evaluate gene expression. Results hMuSCs treated with inflammatory factors significantly ameliorated inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) symptoms. IDO and TSG-6 were greatly upregulated and required for the beneficial effects of hMuSCs on IBD. Mechanistically, the tryptophan metabolites, kynurenine (KYN) or kynurenic acid (KYNA) produced by IDO, augmented the expression of TSG-6 through activating their common receptor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Conclusion Inflammatory cytokines-treated hMuSCs can alleviate DSS-induced colitis through IDO-mediated TSG-6 production.

scholarly journals 1,25(OH)2D3 Differently Affects Immunomodulatory Activities of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Depending on the Presence of TNF-α, IL-1β and IFN-γ

2019 ◽  
Vol 8 (12) ◽  
pp. 2211 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christian Behm ◽  
Alice Blufstein ◽  
Johannes Gahn ◽  
Barbara Kubin ◽  
Michael Nemec ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Stem Cells ◽  
Mesenchymal Stem Cells ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
T Lymphocyte ◽  
T Lymphocyte Proliferation ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory ◽  
Anti Inflammatory Cytokine ◽  
Necrosis Factor

Periodontal ligament-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hPDLSCs) possess immunomodulatory abilities which are strongly enhanced by various inflammatory cytokines. Vitamin D3 has anti-inflammatory effects on hPDLSCs and immune cells. However, no study to date has directly compared the influence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on the immunomodulatory activities of hPDLSCs in the presence of different cytokines. In the present study, the effects of hPDLSCs treated with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, or interferon (IFN)-γ in the presence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on the proliferation of allogenic CD4+ T lymphocyte or on the functional status of primary CD68+ macrophages were analyzed in coculture models. Additionally, the effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on TNF-α-, IL-1β-, and IFN-γ-induced gene expression of some immunomodulatory factors in hPDLSCs were compared. Under coculture conditions, 1,25(OH)2D3 increased or decreased CD4+ T lymphocyte proliferation via hPDLSCs, depending on the cytokine. hPDLSCs primed with 1,25(OH)2D3 and different cytokines affected pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression in macrophages variably, depending on the priming cytokine. With one exception, 1,25(OH)2D3 significantly reduced TNF-α-, IL-1β-, and IFN-γ-induced expression of all the investigated immunomediators in hPDLSCs, albeit to different extents. These results suggest that 1,25(OH)2D3 influences the immunomodulatory activities of hPDLSCs depending qualitatively and quantitatively on the presence of certain inflammatory cytokines.

scholarly journals Constitutive pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine and growth factor response to exercise in leukocytes

2006 ◽  
Vol 100 (4) ◽  
pp. 1124-1133 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank Zaldivar ◽  
Jessica Wang-Rodriguez ◽  
Dan Nemet ◽  
Christina Schwindt ◽  
Pietro Galassetti ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Factors ◽  
Growth Factor ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
Fluorescence Intensity ◽  
Healthy Humans ◽  
Intracellular Cytokines ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Igf I ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Leukocytosis following exercise is a well-described phenomenon of stress/inflammatory activation in healthy humans. We hypothesized that, despite this increase in circulating inflammatory cells, exercise would paradoxically induce expression of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors within these cells. To test this hypothesis, 11 healthy adult men, 18–30 yr old, performed a 30-min bout of heavy cycling exercise; blood sampling was at baseline, end-exercise, and 60 min into recovery. The percentage of leukocytes positive for intracellular cytokines and growth factors and mean fluorescence intensity was obtained by flow cytometry. Proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-2, IFN-γ, and TNF-α), a pleiotropic cytokine (IL-6), and anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors [IL-4, IL-10, growth hormone (GH), and IGF-I] were examined. Median fluorescence intensity was not affected by exercise; however, we found a number of significant changes ( P < 0.05 by mixed linear model and modified t-test) in the numbers of circulating cells positive for particular mediators. The pattern of expression reflected both pro- and anti-inflammatory functions. In T-helper lymphocytes, TNF-α, but also IL-6, and IL-4 were significantly increased. In monocytes, both IFN-γ and IL-4 increased. B-lymphocytes positive for GH and IGF-I increased significantly. GH-positive granulocytes also significantly increased. Collectively, these observations indicate that exercise primes an array of pro- and anti-inflammatory and growth factor expression within circulating leukocytes, perhaps preparing the organism to effectively respond to a variety of stressors imposed by exercise.

Opposing Effects of PD-1/PD-L1/L2 Engagement and IFN-γ/TNF-α in the Treatment of AML w/ Anti-CD33 Chimeric Antigen Receptor-Modified T Cells

Blood ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 128 (22) ◽  
pp. 5891-5891
Author(s):  
Jacob Halum Basham ◽  
Terrence L. Geiger
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
T Cell ◽  
T Lymphocytes ◽  
Chimeric Antigen Receptor ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Car T Cells ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Car T ◽  
Ifn Γ

Abstract Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T lymphocytes (CART cells) have shown benefit as an adjuvant immunotherapy in the treatment of B cell malignancies. This success of re-targeted T cells has not been extended to other hematologic malignancies. We have developed an immunotherapeutic approach to treat acute myeloid leukemia (AML) using CAR T cells re-directed against the myeloid-specific antigen CD33 (CART-33). CART-33 cells are potent and specific in eliminating AML cells in vitro and in vivo. Despite this, CART-33 cells have shown poor in vivo expansion and persistence in NOD-SCID IL2rγ (-/-) (NSG) AML xenograft models. To address the reason for this, we assessed the impact of AML-expressed programmed death ligands 1 & 2 (PD-L1/2) on CART-33 cell activity. PD-L1 inhibits T cell functions upon binding PD-1, which is upregulated with T cell activation. Less is known about PD-L2's effect. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), a primary effector cytokine secreted by CD4+ and CD8+ effector T cells, is a known potent inducer of PD-L1 on AML blasts. Using AML cell lines U937, Oci-AML3, CMK, and MV4-11 we show that IFN-γ, TNF-α, and activated CART-33 supernatant can induce up-regulation of PD-L1 and PD-L2 on AML. IFN-γ and TNF-α synergize strongly in up-regulating PD-1 ligands on AML. The kinetics and induction of PD-L2 are distinct from that of PD-L1. Although PD-L1 is well documented to suppress T cell function via ligation of T cell expressed PD-1, induction of PD-L1/L2 had no effect on the cytolytic activity of CART-33 cells against AML in short term (<48 h) cultures. Paradoxically, 24 hr pre-treatment of AML with either IFN-γ or CART-33 supernatant increased AML susceptibility to killing by CART-33 cells despite elevated expression of PD-L1/L2 by AML. Our results highlight the regulatory complexity of AML cytolysis by re-targeted T lymphocytes, and argue that tumor-expressed PD-L1 and PD-L2 impacts the sustainability, but not short-term killing activity, of adoptively transferred CAR T cells in the treatment of AML. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

The content of cytokines IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, IL-4 and the level of expression in macrophages CD86 and CD163 in peritoneal fluid has a reverse correlation with the degree of severity of external genital endometriosis

2019 ◽  
Vol 65 (5) ◽  
pp. 432-436
Author(s):  
A.M. Krasnyi ◽  
A.A. Sadekova ◽  
T.G. Sefihanov ◽  
V.V. Vtorushina ◽  
E.G. Krechetova ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
Peritoneal Fluid ◽  
Inflammatory Marker ◽  
Inflammatory Activity ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Reverse Correlation ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory ◽  
Degree Of Severity

Concentrations of eight different cytokines and the level of expression of CD86 and CD163 macrophages were studied in peritoneal fluid in women with endometriosis. It was found that the concentration of both inflammatory (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4) as well as the level of macrophage expression of the proinflammatory marker CD86 and anti-inflammatory marker CD163 increased in women with mild external genital endometriosis (1-2 stage), and did not differ from the control group in women with severe endometriosis (3-4 stage). The content of IL-2, IL-10, CM-CSF and IFN-γ in the peritoneal fluid of women with endometriosis did not differ significantly from the control group. The results of the study indicate that the development of external genital endometriosis may be based on insufficient both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory activity of macrophages in the peritoneal fluid.

Aspirin Blocks Orthodontic Relapse via Inhibition of CD4+ T Lymphocytes

2017 ◽  
Vol 96 (5) ◽  
pp. 586-594 ◽  
Author(s):  
Y. Liu ◽  
T. Zhang ◽  
C. Zhang ◽  
S.S. Jin ◽  
R.L. Yang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Lymphocytes ◽  
Relapse Rate ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Th1 Cells ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Inflammatory Drugs ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Immunologic response plays an important role in orthodontic tooth movement (OTM) and relapse. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, affect immune cells and clinical orthodontic treatment. However, the mechanisms by which nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs regulate immune cells to affect orthodontic relapse are unclear. In this study, male Sprague-Dawley rats were grouped as relapse and relapse + aspirin for 10 d after 14 d of OTM. Silicone impressions of the rats’ maxillary dentitions were obtained to record the distance of OTM at the indicated time point. CD4+ T lymphocytes in spleen were examined by flow cytometry. Serum levels of type 1 T-helper (Th1) cell–associated cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon γ (IFN-γ) were determined through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The effects of aspirin on CD4+ T and Th1 cells were also analyzed in vitro. Aspirin treatment significantly reduced the relapse rate. More interestingly, injection of CD25 neutralizing antibody basiliximab or TNF-α inhibitor etanercept can significantly reduce the relapse rate as well. Correspondingly, aspirin treatment significantly accelerated the decrease of orthodontic force–induced secretion of TNF-α and IFN-γ in serum and the expression of TNF-α and IFN-γ in periodontal ligament during relapse. Furthermore, aspirin treatment in vitro significantly repressed the differentiation of CD4+ T and Th1 cells. Overall, results indicated that aspirin treatment can block orthodontic relapse by regulating Th1 cells.

Immunomodulatory consequences of oral administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG in healthy volunteers

2003 ◽  
Vol 70 (2) ◽  
pp. 165-173 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Schultz ◽  
Hans-Jörg Linde ◽  
Norbert Lehn ◽  
Kurt Zimmermann ◽  
Johannes Grossmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Lymphocytes ◽  
Oral Administration ◽  
Healthy Volunteers ◽  
Intestinal Flora ◽  
Lactobacillus Rhamnosus ◽  
Cytokine Secretion ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory ◽  
Cellular Immune

Probiotic microorganisms, especially lactic acid bacteria, are effective in the treatment of infectious diarrhoeal diseases and experimental colitis. Although the mechanisms by which these organisms exert their anti-inflammatory effects are largely unknown, immunomodulating effects are suggested. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a 5-week oral administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus subspecies GG (Lb. GG) on the cellular immune response to intestinal microorganisms in ten healthy volunteers. Peripheral blood cells (PB) were stimulated with either ‘self’ or ‘non-self’ preparations of faecal samples and isolated Bacteroides fragilis group-organisms (Bfg) or Escherichia coli (Esch. coli), and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-4, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α) were measured in the culture supernatant. CD4+ T-lymphocyte activation was determined by measurement of intracellular ATP following lysis of the cells. The activational response of CD4+ T-lymphocytes towards isolated and heat-inactivated intestinal organisms was increased after the probiotic treatment. Additionally, TNF-α, IL-6 and in part IFN-γ cytokine secretion by PB cells following stimulation with whole stool preparations and single members of the flora was significantly decreased, whereas the IL-10 and in part IL-4 cytokine secretion was increased at the end of the study. In contrast, the activational response of CD4+ T-lymphocytes following stimulation with whole ‘non-self’ intestinal flora was higher than by ‘self’ intestinal flora, but both responses showed a trend towards a reduction at the end of the study. This study documents a direct effect by Lb. GG on the cellular immune system of healthy volunteers and offers a promising tool to investigate systemic immunomodulation due to oral administration of probiotic microorganisms.

Up-regulated expression in nonhematopoietic tissues of the BCL2A1-derived minor histocompatibility antigens in response to inflammatory cytokines: relevance for allogeneic immunotherapy of leukemia

Blood ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 106 (12) ◽  
pp. 3955-3957 ◽  
Author(s):  
Freke M. Kloosterboer ◽  
Simone A. P. van Luxemburg-Heijs ◽  
Ronald A. van Soest ◽  
H. M. Esther van Egmond ◽  
Roel Willemze ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Interferon Γ ◽  
Hematopoietic Tissue ◽  
Histocompatibility Antigens ◽  
Minor Histocompatibility Antigens ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Relative Specificity ◽  
Ifn Γ

T cells directed against hematopoietic-restricted minor histocompatibility antigens (mHags) may mediate graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) reactivity without graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Recently, the HLA-A24–restricted mHag ACC-1 and the HLA-B44–restricted mHag ACC-2 encoded by separate polymorphisms within the BCL2A1 gene were characterized. Hematopoietic-restricted expression was suggested for these mHags. We demonstrate BCL2-related protein A1 (BCL2A1) mRNA expression in mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) that was up-regulated by the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and/or interferon γ (IFN-γ). Analysis of cytotoxicity and IFN-γ production illustrated that ACC-2–specific T cells did not recognize untreated MSCs or IFN-γ–treated MSCs but showed specific recognition and killing of MSCs treated with TNF-α plus IFN-γ. We hypothesize that under steady-state circumstances BCL2A1-specific T cells may exhibit relative specificity for hematopoietic tissue, but reactivity against nonhematopoietic cells may occur when inflammatory infiltrates are present. Thus, the role of BCL2A1-specific T cells in differential induction of GVL reactivity and GVHD may depend on the presence of inflammatory responses that may occur during GVHD.

Effect of Coronary Percutaneous Revascularization on Interferon-γ and Interleukin-10 Producing CD4+ T Cells during Acute Myocardial Infarction

2007 ◽  
Vol 20 (4) ◽  
pp. 791-799 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. Sardella ◽  
L. De Luca ◽  
V. Francavilla ◽  
D. Accapezzato ◽  
A. Di Roma ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Myocardial Infarction ◽  
Coronary Artery Disease ◽  
T Cells ◽  
Coronary Artery ◽  
T Cell ◽  
T Lymphocytes ◽  
History Of ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Anti Inflammatory ◽  
Artery Disease

T lymphocytes play an important role in the induction and progression of acute coronary syndromes (ACS). To gain insight into how different T cell subsets can influence ACS, we analyzed the frequencies of circulating CD4+T cells producing either pro-inflammatory interferon(IFN)-γ or anti-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-10 in subjects presenting with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The effect of coronary bare metal (BS) and paclitaxel-eluting stent (PES) on the balance between CD4+IFN-γ+ and CD4+IL-10+ lymphocytes was also investigated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated from 38 consecutive patients with STEMI before and 48 hrs or 6 days after implantation of either BS or PES. Twenty patients with no history of coronary artery disease were included as basal controls. PBMC were stimulated in vitro with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies, and CD4+IFN-γ+ or CD4+IL-10+ T cells were detected by flow cytometry intracellular staining. The frequency of peripheral CD4+IL-10+ T cells was significantly higher in STEMI patients as compared with controls. Conversely, the frequency of CD4+IFN-γ+ T lymphocytes did not differ between STEMI and subjects without history of coronary artery disease. Six days after the revascularization procedure, the percentage of CD4+IL-10+ T cells was significantly decreased in BS but not in the PES group, whereas the relative percentage of CD4+IFN-γ+ T lymphocytes were diminished in both groups as compared with baseline levels. Our data indicate that STEMI is associated with a peripheral expansion of CD4+IL-10+T lymphocytes, and that primary coronary revascularization with implantation of either BS or PES is followed by a reduction in circulating CD4+IFN-γ+ T lymphocytes. PES implantation, however, appears to inhibit the relative decrease of the IL-10 producing lymphocyte as observed in BS implanted patients, shifting the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory T cell populations in favor of the latter.

scholarly journals Highly functional virus-specific cellular immune response in asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nina Le Bert ◽  
Hannah E Clapham ◽  
Anthony T Tan ◽  
Wan Ni Chia ◽  
Christine YL Tham ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
T Cells ◽  
Inflammatory Cytokines ◽  
T Cell Activation ◽  
Cellular Immune Response ◽  
Cell Activation ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Specific Cellular Immune Response ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Cellular Immune

AbstractThe efficacy of virus-specific T cells in clearing pathogens involves a fine balance between their antiviral and inflammatory features. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in individuals who clear SARS-CoV-2 infection without symptoms or disease could reveal non-pathological yet protective characteristics. We therefore compared the quantity and function of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in a cohort of asymptomatic individuals (n=85) with that of symptomatic COVID-19 patients (n=76), at different time points after antibody seroconversion. We quantified T cells reactive to structural proteins (M, NP and Spike) using ELISpot assays, and measured the magnitude of cytokine secretion (IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-10) in whole blood following T cell activation with SARS-CoV-2 peptide pools as a functional readout. Frequencies of T cells specific for the different SARS-CoV-2 proteins in the early phases of recovery were similar between asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals. However, we detected an increased IFN-γ and IL-2 production in asymptomatic compared to symptomatic individuals after activation of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in blood. This was associated with a proportional secretion of IL-10 and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β) only in asymptomatic infection, while a disproportionate secretion of inflammatory cytokines was triggered by SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell activation in symptomatic individuals. Thus, asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals are not characterized by a weak antiviral immunity; on the contrary, they mount a robust and highly functional virus-specific cellular immune response. Their ability to induce a proportionate production of IL-10 might help to reduce inflammatory events during viral clearance.

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