The price of victories: on the cost of military campaigns in Russia in the 18th century

2021 ◽  
pp. 52
Author(s):  
Igor Kurukin
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Military Campaigns ◽  
The Cost

       

Principle of conservation of energy and modern theories

2020 ◽  
Vol 33 (4) ◽  
pp. 444-452
Author(s):  
H. Hamam
Keyword(s):  
Energy Conservation ◽  
Scientific Community ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Scientific Progress ◽  
Modern History ◽  
Conservation Of Energy ◽  
The Cost ◽  
The Universe ◽  
Principle Of Energy Conservation

The famous quote of Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (18th century) “Nothing is lost, nothing is created: everything is transformed” illustrates a principle that has marked minds throughout modern history. It deals with the principle of energy conservation. In our minds, energy is conserved in our world (in our dimensions). If part of the energy drifts out of our dimensions, this will contradict the statement “Nothing is lost.” If some energy penetrates our dimensions, this will contradict the statement “Nothing is created.” Everything is transformed within our dimensions. This article discusses the latest attempts through cosmic theories, still unverified, that have tried to explain the start and development of the universe even at the cost of concepts and principles unanimously agreed to date by the scientific community through the history, such as the principle of conservation of energy. This article raises some questions that we scientists must answer before we move forward. We must from time to time take a step back and have a critical look at our scientific progress before we branch off into a web of various theories.

History of Mozambique

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eugénia Rodrigues
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Colonial State ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The North ◽  
History Of ◽  
Military Campaigns ◽  
The Indian Ocean ◽  
Direct Administration ◽  
Portuguese Colonialism ◽  
Indian And Atlantic Oceans

The peoples of early-21st-century Mozambique underwent different historical experiences which, to a certain extent, were homogenized when Portuguese colonialism encompassed the entire territory from the late 19th century onward. However, all of them had common origins, rooted in successive Bantu migrations. These peoples were organized into small chiefdoms based on lineages, but those located in the central region of Mozambique were integrated into states with some level of centralization, created by the Karanga south of the Zambezi and by the Maravi to the north. The interior regions were articulated into mercantile networks with the Indian Ocean through Swahili coastal entrepôts, exporting gold and ivory. From 1505 onward, the Portuguese sought to control this commerce from some settlements along the coast, particularly Mozambique Island, their capital. During the last decades of the 16th century, projects emerged for territorial appropriation in the Zambezi Valley, where a Luso-Afro-Indian Creole society developed. From the mid-18th century onward the slave trade to the Indian and Atlantic Oceans became increasingly important, with different impacts in the respective regions. Modern Portuguese colonialism was established by means of military campaigns: having limited capital, Portugal granted concessions for part of the territory to companies. When these concessions ended in 1942, the colonial state developed a direct administration throughout the territory, headquartered in Lourenço Marques (Maputo). Nationalist ideals developed during the 1950s among various movements, of which three organizations united to form the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) in 1962. From 1964 onward, FRELIMO unleashed an anticolonial war in northern and central Mozambique. After the 1974 revolution in Portugal, negotiations resulted in the recognition of Mozambique’s independence on June 25, 1975, and a FRELIMO government. Armed opposition to the Marxist-Leninist government and the civil war continued until 1992. During the 1990s, Mozambique adopted a multiparty system and liberalized its economy.

scholarly journals Estimation of Damage Cost to Building Façades per kilo Emission of Air Pollution in Norway

Atmosphere ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (7) ◽  
pp. 686 ◽  
Author(s):  
Terje Grøntoft
Keyword(s):  
Air Pollution ◽  
Marginal Cost ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Cost Benefit ◽  
Damage Cost ◽  
Damage Costs ◽  
Marginal Damage ◽  
The Cost ◽  
The Impact

This work reports marginal damage costs to façades due to air pollution exposure estimated “bottom up,” for Norway and Oslo (Norway) by the use of exposure response functions (ERFs) and impact pathway analysis from the emission to the deteriorating impact. The aim of the work was to supply cost estimates that could be compared with reported damage costs to health, agriculture, and ecosystems, and that could be used in cost-benefit analysis by environmental authorities. The marginal damage costs for cleaning, repair, and in total (cleaning + repair) were found to be, in Norway: eight, two, and 10, respectively, and for a traffic situation in Oslo: 50 (77), 50 (28), and 100 (105), (×/÷ 2.5) Euro/kg emission of PM10, SO2, and NO2 in total. For Oslo, the values represent a recorded façade materials inventory for 17–18th century buildings, and in the brackets the same façade inventory as for Norway. In total, 5–10% of the marginal damage cost was found to be due to NO2. The total marginal cost was found to be shared about equally between the impact of PM10 and SO2 in Norway (50 and 42% of the impact) and for the 17–18th century buildings in Oslo (45% and 49% of the impact), but for a similar façade materials inventory in Oslo as Norway, the total marginal cost due to PM10 was about two-thirds and that due to SO2 about one-third of the total, with about 5% of the cost still being due to NO2. The division of the costs between the separate pollutant influences on the cleaning and repair was, however, found to be significantly different in Norway and Oslo. In Norway, about 60% of the marginal cleaning cost was found to be due to PM10, 30% due to SO2, and 10% due to NO2. In Oslo, about 85% of the marginal cleaning costs were found to be due to PM10, 10% due to SO2, and 5% due to NO2. For the marginal repair cost, the opposite situation was found, in both Norway and Oslo, with 80–90% of the cost being due to SO2, 5–10% being due to PM10, and 5–10% due to NO2. As other factors than air pollution deteriorates façades and influences maintenance decisions, the expenses that can be attributed to the air pollution could be significantly lower.

Virginia's Workhouses for the Poor: Care for “Divers Idle and Disorderly Persons”

1988 ◽  
Vol 8 (4) ◽  
pp. 287-303
Author(s):  
Martha W. McCartney
Keyword(s):  
Material Culture ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Archaeological Research ◽  
Social Experiment ◽  
The Poor ◽  
Parish Churches ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Poor Care

Commencing in 1661, the responsibility for providing welfare assistance to the poor was assigned to the colony's parish churches, whose members rendered care, for which they were paid. During the mid-18th century, as the ranks of the poor swelled and the cost of providing for them became increasingly burdensome, parish churches embarked upon a major social experiment: they began operating workhouses, where the indigent could be sheltered and, in theory, also earn their keep. Archaeological research at Bruton Parish poorhouse provided a glimpse into the material culture of one such workhouse.

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING PRACTICE AND PRICE CALCULATION AT BOULTON AND WATT'S SOHO FOUNDRY: A LATE 18TH CENTURY EXAMPLE

1999 ◽  
Vol 26 (2) ◽  
pp. 65-66 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Williams
Keyword(s):  
Historical Data ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Accounting System ◽  
Price List ◽  
Competitive Edge ◽  
Accounting Practice ◽  
Late 18Th Century ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Cost

When deciding upon the price to charge for one of their products, the managers of the Soho Foundry in Birmingham placed great reliance upon the data stored in their accounting system. By the last decade of the 18th century, the nature of the steam engine business was changing rapidly and reputation alone was insufficient to attract customers. Also, as more industrialists decided upon steam as a source of power and competition to supply their needs increased, more attention had to be paid to price structures. The increasing standardization of products meant that a price list could be determined. The partners showed some reluctance to come to terms with the pricing issue, insisting that the quality of their product was of more importance than its price. This paper addresses the processes undertaken at the Soho Foundry to establish price lists for engines and parts. It shows that prices were based on the cost of previous machines, this cost being calculated using predetermined rates as shown in the engine books. The paper concludes with the observation that continual reliance on historical data was one of the factors contributing to the firm's loss of its competitive edge.

What is the placebo effect?

2021 ◽  
pp. 64-67
Author(s):  
Georgiy Rubenovich Petrosyan
Keyword(s):  
Placebo Effect ◽  
Mental State ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Emotional Perception ◽  
Medicinal Substances ◽  
American Physician ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Vital Forces ◽  
First Time ◽  
Positive Effect

For the first time, the placebo effect was described in 1955 by the American physician Henry Beecher, who found that about a third of patients recover as a result of the use of sugar pills that do not contain any active medicinal substances. The first mentions of such drugs date back to the 18th century; at that time they meant "fake" drugs containing indifferent substances in their composition. It is believed that the placebo effect is associated with a person's psycho-emotional perception of this drug as a means of salvation, belief in its effectiveness and efficacy, and the desire to recover. Against this background, the maximum mobilization of vital forces occurs, the processes of regeneration are switched on, and the physical and mental state of the patient is normalized. An interesting fact is that the severity of the placebo effect can be significantly affected by the cost of the drug (the higher it is, the better the drug "helps") and even its appearance. For instance, yellow pills are very effective in treating depression, green pills help reduce feelings of anxiety, and white pills assist in treating stomach ulcers. In addition, taking two pills has a greater positive effect than taking one.

ners increased (about 50 in 1770 and 204 in 1830). Unlike most firms of that period, it was not a family business. The Turning Period (1791-1820) The accounting system used in the 18th century achieved two main tasks: it computed the wealth (inventory) and enrichment (receipts and payments) of the partners, and it kept the internal movements of goods and cash under control with a comprehen­ sive system of vouchers. However, there does not seem to be any reckoning of costs before 1820. The Company waited for over 150 years before calcu­ lating a cost amount for its products. If one wants to prove the importance of that turning point, the quotes below from two man­ agers are evidence. In 1793, i.e. during the French Revolution, the Company delivered to each associate an “Instruction to help the interested parties in the Manufacture of glass with the declaration form they had to fill in about their interest in that trade, according to the Compulsory Loan Act of the 24th of August." Such a docu­ ment4 had four aims, the most important of which was providing knowledge of the profit of the year 1793. According to the order-in-council, “the benefit was that which went beyond the interests of the funds invested.” The interest was easily known (5% of the net worth) thanks to the inventory. But as regards the evaluation of benefits, the calculation seemed quite impossible from the au­ thors’ instruction: Things do not go with glass as they do with cloth, for which the cost is known even before we put it on the frame. Glass, on the contrary, never preserves its original value. The flaws entail scraps, that is why the benefit of the glass production is a random result and it is impos­ sible to calculate it. In 1829, the Baron Roederer, a director of the Company of Saint-Quirin, expressed quite an opposite point of view when he described the problems raised by the possible merger of the two competing companies.5 It seems that in this case, everything could be reduced on both sides to the calculation of a square foot of glass.

2014 ◽  
pp. 253-253
Keyword(s):  
French Revolution ◽  
Family Business ◽  
Turning Point ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Glass Production ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Accounting System ◽  
Net Worth ◽  
Opposite Point ◽  
The Cost

Libya Accommodates to Lower Oil Revenues: Economic and Political Adjustments

1983 ◽  
Vol 15 (3) ◽  
pp. 377-385 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. A. Allan
Keyword(s):  
Financial Resources ◽  
Military Establishment ◽  
Trade Offs ◽  
Defence Spending ◽  
Military Campaigns ◽  
Oil Revenues ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Development Spending ◽  
The Military ◽  
Two Sectors

Libya enjoyed steadily rising oil revenues after 1960 and became a significant member of the world's trading community. By 1980, oil revenues were over US $20 bn and these enabled development spending to approach US $10 bn per year as well as permitting large allocations to consumption, defence, and international ventures. The sums involved in the three sectors cannot be defined precisely as defence spending, and the cost of such military campaigns as the 1981 intervention in Chad are not available. Whether such data were precisely known or not, the spending options were limited to these three sectors, and trade-offs had to be made between them when financial resources became constrained. The first two sectors, development and consumption, were of great interest to the population in general, while defence and international ventures were of interest to the leadership as well as having appeal to that special constituency which populated the military establishment of the country.

scholarly journals “DIPLOMATIC FRONT” DURING THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR: DIPLOMATIC MISSION OF JUST JUEL TO PETER I (1709-1711)

2019 ◽  
pp. 31-37
Author(s):  
I. Papa
Keyword(s):  
International Relations ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Military Conflict ◽  
Political Interests ◽  
History Of ◽  
Military Campaigns ◽  
The Baltic ◽  
Great Northern War

The long and active competition among some European states for the political and economic domination in the Baltic region led to the Great Northern War, a large-scale and long-lasting military conflict that significantly influenced international relations. The course of this war was saturated not only with big battles and massive military campaigns but also a "diplomatic front," in which the rulers, with the help of diplomats, tried to win this war with more benefits to their states and political interests. The mission of Danish diplomat Just Juel (1709-1711) is one of the episodes not only of Danish diplomacy during the Northern War but also the history of international relations in the early 18th century. The "thick text" of the travel diary, written by this Danish envoy during his mission, allows us to some extent imagine and reconstruct certain peculiarities of international relations in Northeast Europe; to learn more about the known events and little-known facts; to evaluate the role of diplomats in establishing relationships between states and their rulers during the wartime period.

scholarly journals Diseases and medical care during the war era of 1812

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (3) ◽  
pp. 211-232
Author(s):  
E. M. Idelson
Keyword(s):  
Medical Care ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Military Campaigns

Turning to the analysis of individual pathological forms that took on an epidemic character in the campaign of 1812, it should be noted that all military campaigns in general for almost the entire 18th century, and Napoleonic campaigns in particular, together with the thunder of weapons, carried everywhere a very cruel, destructive general disease.

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