Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Transmission: A Comparison of Incriminated Vectors

Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a viral disease of veterinary importance, enzootic in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. In the U.S., VS produces devastating economic losses, particularly in the southwestern states where the outbreaks display an occurrence pattern of 10-year intervals. To date, the mechanisms of the geographic spread and maintenance cycles during epizootics remain unclear. This is due, in part, to the fact that VS epidemiology has a complex of variables to consider, including a broad range of vertebrate hosts, multiple routes of transmission, and an extensive diversity of suspected vector species acting as both mechanical and biological vectors. Infection and viral progression within vector species are highly influenced by virus serotype, as well as environmental factors, including temperature and seasonality; however, the mechanisms of viral transmission, including non-conventional pathways, are yet to be fully studied. Here, we review VS epidemiology and transmission mechanisms, with comparisons of transmission evidence for the four most incriminated hematophagous dipteran taxa: Aedes mosquitoes, Lutzomyia sand flies, Simulium black flies, and Culicoides biting midges.

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Detection of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Indiana from Insects Collected during the 2020 Outbreak in Kansas, USA

Pathogens ◽

10.3390/pathogens10091126 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (9) ◽

pp. 1126

Author(s):

Bethany L. McGregor ◽

Paula Rozo-Lopez ◽

Travis M. Davis ◽

Barbara S. Drolet

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Vesicular Stomatitis Virus ◽

Viral Disease ◽

The United States ◽

Black Flies ◽

Vector Species ◽

Biting Midges ◽

First Report ◽

Vesicular Stomatitis ◽

Culicoides Variipennis

Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a reportable viral disease which affects horses, cattle, and pigs in the Americas. Outbreaks of vesicular stomatitis virus New Jersey serotype (VSV-NJ) in the United States typically occur on a 5–10-year cycle, usually affecting western and southwestern states. In 2019–2020, an outbreak of VSV Indiana serotype (VSV-IN) extended eastward into the states of Kansas and Missouri for the first time in several decades, leading to 101 confirmed premises in Kansas and 37 confirmed premises in Missouri. In order to investigate which vector species contributed to the outbreak in Kansas, we conducted insect surveillance at two farms that experienced confirmed VSV-positive cases, one each in Riley County and Franklin County. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention miniature light traps were used to collect biting flies on the premises. Two genera of known VSV vectors, Culicoides biting midges and Simulium black flies, were identified to species, pooled by species, sex, reproductive status, and collection site, and tested for the presence of VSV-IN RNA by RT-qPCR. In total, eight positive pools were detected from Culicoides sonorensis (1), Culicoides stellifer (3), Culicoides variipennis (1), and Simulium meridionale (3). The C. sonorensis- and C. variipennis-positive pools were from nulliparous individuals, possibly indicating transovarial or venereal transmission as the source of virus. This is the first report of VSV-IN in field caught C. stellifer and the first report of either serotype in S. meridionale near outbreak premises. These results improve our understanding of the role midges and black flies play in VSV epidemiology in the United States and broadens the scope of vector species for targeted surveillance and control.

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A Spatio-temporal distribution analysis of vesicular stomatitis outbreak in Ecuador, 2018

Bionatura ◽

10.21931/rb/2021.06.02.19 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 6 (2) ◽

Author(s):

María Teresa Salinas ◽

Euclides José De La Torre ◽

Paola Katerine Moreno ◽

Andrés Alejandro Vaca ◽

Rubén Alexander Maldonado

Keyword(s):

Spatial Dynamics ◽

Disease Outbreaks ◽

Temporal Distribution ◽

Viral Disease ◽

Space Time ◽

Scan Statistics ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Distribution Analysis ◽

Tissue Samples ◽

Vesicular Stomatitis

Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a viral disease primarily affecting cattle, swine, and equine causing economic losses. It is of particular interest because its outward signs are similar to those of foot-and-mouth disease. Outbreaks of VS occurred in several herds in Ecuador in 2018, affecting principally bovines. In this sense, the present study was conducted to characterize the temporal and spatial dynamics of Vesicular stomatitis occurrence between January and December 2018. During the study period, 583 animals with symptoms of VS were reported. In this way, tissue samples were collected, VS was diagnosed, and outbreaks were defined as herds with a confirmed positive test for the disease. Outbreaks were georeferenced, and Space-time clusters were used to determine zones where the number of reported outbreaks was more significant than expected. A space-time permutation scan statistic (STPSS) was used to identify hot spots of space-time interaction within patterns of the cases reported. Standard Monte Carlo Critical Value was used to test for the cluster's significance. A total of 399 outbreaks were presented in 18 provinces. Spatial scan statistics allowed the detection of four significant space-time clusters of VS outbreaks. The highest incidence was reported around week 35 and week 44, which were observed outbreaks increase in the country's north region. In this sense, clusters coincided with the areas with the highest incidence of outbreaks. Besides, maps showed places where the disease is not shared. The information showed in the present study may contribute to prevents VS spread into regions of Ecuador that is only sporadically affected by the disease. Monitoring in affected zones may lead to quick responses to possible outbreaks issuing alerts when there is a greater than typical risk of spreading the disease

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Venereal Transmission of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Culicoides sonorensis Midges

Pathogens ◽

10.3390/pathogens9040316 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (4) ◽

pp. 316 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Paula Rozo-Lopez ◽

Berlin Londono-Renteria ◽

Barbara S. Drolet

Keyword(s):

Vesicular Stomatitis Virus ◽

Virus Isolation ◽

Reproductive Organs ◽

Reproductive Organ ◽

Immunofluorescent Staining ◽

Agricultural Pests ◽

Biting Midges ◽

Culicoides Sonorensis ◽

Multiple Routes ◽

Vesicular Stomatitis

Culicoides sonorensis biting midges are well-known agricultural pests and transmission vectors of arboviruses such as vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). The epidemiology of VSV is complex and encompasses a broad range of vertebrate hosts, multiple routes of transmission, and diverse vector species. In temperate regions, viruses can overwinter in the absence of infected animals through unknown mechanisms, to reoccur the next year. Non-conventional routes for VSV vector transmission may help explain viral maintenance in midge populations during inter-epidemic periods and times of adverse conditions for bite transmission. In this study, we examined whether VSV could be transmitted venereally between male and female midges. Our results showed that VSV-infected females could venereally transmit virus to uninfected naïve males at a rate as high as 76.3% (RT-qPCR), 31.6% (virus isolation) during the third gonotrophic cycle. Additionally, VSV-infected males could venereally transmit virus to uninfected naïve females at a rate as high as 76.6% (RT-qPCR), 49.2% (virus isolation). Immunofluorescent staining of micro-dissected reproductive organs, immunochemical staining of midge histological sections, examination of internal reproductive organ morphology, and observations of mating behaviors were used to determine relevant anatomical sites for virus location and to hypothesize the potential mechanism for VSV transmission in C. sonorensis midges through copulation.

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Controlling Geminiviruses before Transmission: Prospects

Plants ◽

10.3390/plants9111556 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (11) ◽

pp. 1556

Author(s):

Muhammad Salman Mubarik ◽

Sultan Habibullah Khan ◽

Aftab Ahmad ◽

Ali Raza ◽

Zulqurnain Khan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Virus Transmission ◽

Viral Disease ◽

Life Cycles ◽

Crop Plants ◽

Insect Vector ◽

Vector Species ◽

Tropical Regions ◽

Virus Particles ◽

Bacterial Endosymbionts ◽

Microbial Symbionts

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)-transmitted Geminiviruses cause serious diseases of crop plants in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Plants, animals, and their microbial symbionts have evolved complex ways to interact with each other that impact their life cycles. Blocking virus transmission by altering the biology of vector species, such as the whitefly, can be a potential approach to manage these devastating diseases. Virus transmission by insect vectors to plant hosts often involves bacterial endosymbionts. Molecular chaperonins of bacterial endosymbionts bind with virus particles and have a key role in the transmission of Geminiviruses. Hence, devising new approaches to obstruct virus transmission by manipulating bacterial endosymbionts before infection opens new avenues for viral disease control. The exploitation of bacterial endosymbiont within the insect vector would disrupt interactions among viruses, insects, and their bacterial endosymbionts. The study of this cooperating web could potentially decrease virus transmission and possibly represent an effective solution to control viral diseases in crop plants.

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Identifying candidate Culicoides spp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) for the study of interactions with Candidatus Cardinium hertigii (Bacteroidetes)

10.1101/2020.09.21.306753 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Jack Pilgrim ◽

Stefanos Siozios ◽

Matthew Baylis ◽

Gert Venter ◽

Claire Garros ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Disease Transmission ◽

Animal Health ◽

Viral Disease ◽

Vector Species ◽

Biting Midges ◽

Prior Record ◽

High Prevalence ◽

Candidate Species ◽

Future Work ◽

Potential Use

AbstractCulicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are disease vectors responsible for the transmission of several viruses of economic and animal health importance. The recent deployment of Wolbachia with pathogen-blocking capacity to control viral disease transmission by mosquitoes has led to a focus on the potential use of endosymbionts to control arboviruses transmitted by other vector species. Previous screens of Culicoides have described the presence of Candidatus Cardinium hertigii (Bacteroidetes). However, the biological impact of this symbiont is yet to be uncovered and awaits a suitable system to study Cardinium-midge interactions. To identify candidate species to investigate these interactions, accurate knowledge of the distribution of the symbiont within Culicoides populations is needed. We used a sensitive nested PCR assay to screen Cardinium infection in 337 individuals of 25 Culicoides species from both Palearctic and Afrotropical regions. Infections were observed in several vector species including C. imicola and the pulicaris complex (C. pulicaris, C. bysta, C. newsteadi and C. punctatus) with prevalence ranging from low and intermediate, to fixation. Infection in C. pulicaris was very rare in comparison to a previous study, and there is evidence the prior record of high prevalence represents a laboratory contamination error. Phylogenetic analysis based on the Gyrase B gene sequence grouped all new isolates within “group C” of the genus, a clade which has to date been exclusively described in Culicoides. Through a comparison of our results with previous screens, we evaluate the suitability of Cardinium-infected species for future work pertaining to the symbiont.

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Tantangan dan Kendala Pengendalian African Swine Fever

Jurnal Sain Veteriner ◽

10.22146/jsv.61084 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 39 (1) ◽

pp. 62

Author(s):

Roza Azizah Primatika ◽

Etih Sudarnika ◽

Bambang Sumiarto ◽

Chaerul Basri

Keyword(s):

Large Scale ◽

Virus Transmission ◽

African Swine Fever ◽

Viral Disease ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Indirect Contact ◽

Animal Products ◽

Faecal Excretion ◽

Wild Pigs ◽

Livestock Sector

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a highly contagious hemorrhagic viral disease that attacks pigs and wild pigs causing economic losses for farms small and large scale. ASF outbreaks that occurred in several regions in the world have caused unrest for the livestock sector. The rapid spread of the ASF virus has resulted in very high pig mortality. ASF virus transmission can occur through direct or indirect contact. Urine and faecal excretion of pigs is an important route of ASF transmission. The ASF virus has three transmission cycles, namely the silvatic, domestic and wild boar cycles. Outbreaks that occur in several countries encourage the strategy of controlling and overcoming the disease through surveillance. ASF disease control that has been carried out includes improving farm biosecurity management systems and limiting the movement of animals and animal products before the ASF vaccine is found.

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Culicoides Biting Midges—Underestimated Vectors for Arboviruses of Public Health and Veterinary Importance

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v11040376 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (4) ◽

pp. 376 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Franziska Sick ◽

Martin Beer ◽

Helge Kampen ◽

Kerstin Wernike

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Vector Competence ◽

Febrile Illness ◽

Disease Spread ◽

Vector Species ◽

Public Health Importance ◽

Biting Midges ◽

Veterinary Importance ◽

Hematophagous Arthropods ◽

Culicoides Biting Midges

Culicoides biting midges, small hematophagous dipterans, are the demonstrated or putative vectors of multiple arboviruses of veterinary and public health importance. Despite its relevance in disease spread, the ceratopogonid genus Culicoides is still a largely neglected group of species, predominantly because the major human-affecting arboviruses are considered to be transmitted by mosquitoes. However, when a pathogen is detected in a certain vector species, a thorough search for further vectors often remains undone and, therefore, the relevant vector species may remain unknown. Furthermore, for many hematophagous arthropods, true vector competence is often merely suspected and not experimentally proven. Therefore, we aim to illuminate the general impact of Culicoides biting midges and to summarize the knowledge about biting midge-borne disease agents using the order Bunyavirales, the largest and most diverse group of RNA viruses, as an example. When considering only viruses evidentially transmitted by Culicoides midges, the Simbu serogroup (genus Orthobunyavirus) is presumably the most important group within the virus order. Its members are of great veterinary importance, as a variety of simbuviruses, e.g., the species Akabane orthobunyavirus or Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus, induces severe congenital infections in pregnant animals. The major zoonotic representative of this serogroup occurs in South and Central America and causes the so-called Oropouche fever, an acute febrile illness in humans.

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Analysis of the Role of Bradysiaimpatiens (Diptera: Sciaridae) as a Vector Transmitting Peanut Stunt Virus on the Model Plant Nicotiana benthamiana

Cells ◽

10.3390/cells10061546 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (6) ◽

pp. 1546

Author(s):

Marta Budziszewska ◽

Patryk Frąckowiak ◽

Aleksandra Obrępalska-Stęplowska

Keyword(s):

Nicotiana Benthamiana ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Virus Transmission ◽

Pathogenic Fungi ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Fungus Gnats ◽

Droplet Pcr ◽

Viral Coat ◽

Peanut Stunt Virus

Bradysia species, commonly known as fungus gnats, are ubiquitous in greenhouses, nurseries of horticultural plants, and commercial mushroom houses, causing significant economic losses. Moreover, the insects from the Bradysia genus have a well-documented role in plant pathogenic fungi transmission. Here, a study on the potential of Bradysia impatiens to acquire and transmit the peanut stunt virus (PSV) from plant to plant was undertaken. Four-day-old larvae of B. impatiens were exposed to PSV-P strain by feeding on virus-infected leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana and then transferred to healthy plants in laboratory conditions. Using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), and digital droplet PCR (RT-ddPCR), the PSV RNAs in the larva, pupa, and imago of B. impatiens were detected and quantified. The presence of PSV genomic RNA strands as well as viral coat protein in N. benthamiana, on which the viruliferous larvae were feeding, was also confirmed at the molecular level, even though the characteristic symptoms of PSV infection were not observed. The results have shown that larvae of B. impatiens could acquire the virus and transmit it to healthy plants. Moreover, it has been proven that PSV might persist in the insect body transstadially. Although the molecular mechanisms of virion acquisition and retention during insect development need further studies, this is the first report on B. impatiens playing a potential role in plant virus transmission.

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Vector distribution and transmission risk of the Zika virus in South and Central America

PeerJ ◽

10.7717/peerj.7920 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 ◽

pp. e7920

Author(s):

Sarah Cunze ◽

Judith Kochmann ◽

Lisa K. Koch ◽

Elisa Genthner ◽

Sven Klimpel

Keyword(s):

South America ◽

Central America ◽

Zika Virus ◽

Habitat Suitability ◽

Virus Transmission ◽

Transmission Risk ◽

Eastern Coast ◽

Suitable Habitat ◽

Virus Infections ◽

Vector Species

Background Zika is of great medical relevance due to its rapid geographical spread in 2015 and 2016 in South America and its serious implications, for example, certain birth defects. Recent epidemics urgently require a better understanding of geographic patterns of the Zika virus transmission risk. This study aims to map the Zika virus transmission risk in South and Central America. We applied the maximum entropy approach, which is common for species distribution modelling, but is now also widely in use for estimating the geographical distribution of infectious diseases. Methods As predictor variables we used a set of variables considered to be potential drivers of both direct and indirect effects on the emergence of Zika. Specifically, we considered (a) the modelled habitat suitability for the two main vector species Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus as a proxy of vector species distributions; (b) temperature, as it has a great influence on virus transmission; (c) commonly called evidence consensus maps (ECM) of human Zika virus infections on a regional scale as a proxy for virus distribution; (d) ECM of human dengue virus infections and, (e) as possibly relevant socio-economic factors, population density and the gross domestic product. Results The highest values for the Zika transmission risk were modelled for the eastern coast of Brazil as well as in Central America, moderate values for the Amazon basin and low values for southern parts of South America. The following countries were modelled to be particularly affected: Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. While modelled vector habitat suitability as predictor variable showed the highest contribution to the transmission risk model, temperature of the warmest quarter contributed only comparatively little. Areas with optimal temperature conditions for virus transmission overlapped only little with areas of suitable habitat conditions for the two main vector species. Instead, areas with the highest transmission risk were characterised as areas with temperatures below the optimum of the virus, but high habitat suitability modelled for the two main vector species. Conclusion Modelling approaches can help estimating the spatial and temporal dynamics of a disease. We focused on the key drivers relevant in the Zika transmission cycle (vector, pathogen, and hosts) and integrated each single component into the model. Despite the uncertainties generally associated with modelling, the approach applied in this study can be used as a tool and assist decision making and managing the spread of Zika.

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