Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Review on Recent Findings and Challenges in Industrial Applications and Materials Characterization

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a fusion manufacturing process in which the heat energy of an electric arc is employed for melting the electrodes and depositing material layers for wall formation or for simultaneously cladding two materials in order to form a composite structure. This directed energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) method is advantageous and efficient as it produces large parts with structural integrity due to the high deposition rates, reduced wastage of raw material, and low consumption of energy in comparison with the conventional joining processes and other additive manufacturing technologies. These features have resulted in a constant and continuous increase in interest in this modern manufacturing technique which demands further studies to promote new industrial applications. The high demand for WAAM in aerospace, automobile, nuclear, moulds, and dies industries demonstrates compatibility and reflects comprehensiveness. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the evolution, development, and state of the art of WAAM for non-ferrous materials. Key research observations and inferences from the literature reports regarding the WAAM applications, methods employed, process parameter control, optimization and process limitations, as well as mechanical and metallurgical behavior of materials have been analyzed and synthetically discussed in this paper. Information concerning constraints and enhancements of the wire arc additive manufacturing processes to be considered in terms of wider industrial applicability is also presented in the last part of this paper.

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Influence of Deposition Patterns on Distortion of H13 Steel by Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing

Metals ◽

10.3390/met11030485 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (3) ◽

pp. 485

Author(s):

Xufeng Li ◽

Jian Lin ◽

Zhidong Xia ◽

Yongqiang Zhang ◽

Hanguang Fu

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Temperature History ◽

H13 Steel ◽

Deposition Patterns ◽

Field Distortion ◽

Set Up ◽

Manufacturing Technologies ◽

Inherent Strain ◽

Inherent Strain Method ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has been considered as one of the potential additive-manufacturing technologies to fabricate large components. However, its industrial application is still limited by the existence of stress and distortion. During the process of WAAM, the scanning pattern has an important influence on the temperature field, distortion and final quality of the part. Four kinds of deposition patterns, including sequence, symmetry, in–out and out–in, were designed to deposit H13 steel in this study. An in situ measurement system was set up to record the temperature history and the progress of accumulated distortion of the parts during deposition. An S value was proposed to evaluate the distortion of the substrate. It was shown that the distortion of the part deposited by sequence was significantly larger than those of other parts. The distortion deposited by the out–in pattern decreased by 68.6% compared with sequence. The inherent strain method and strain parameter were introduced to expose the mechanism of distortion reduction caused by pattern variation.

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Investigation of microstructure and hardness of a rib geometry produced by metal forming and wire-arc additive manufacturing

MATEC Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/matecconf/201819002005 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 190 ◽

pp. 02005 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Markus Hirtler ◽

Angelika Jedynak ◽

Benjamin Sydow ◽

Alexander Sviridov ◽

Markus Bambach

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Metal Forming ◽

Batch Size ◽

Unit Costs ◽

Batch Sizes ◽

Traditional Manufacturing ◽

Manufacturing Technologies ◽

Forming Tools ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing ◽

Am Processes

Within the scope of consumer-oriented production, individuality and cost-effectiveness are two essential aspects, which can barely be met by traditional manufacturing technologies. Conventional metal forming techniques are suitable for large batch sizes. If variants or individualized components have to be formed, the unit costs rise due to the inevitable tooling costs. For such applications, additive manufacturing (AM) processes, which do not require tooling, are more suitable. Due to the low production rates and limited build space of AM machines, the manufacturing costs are highly dependent on part size and batch size. Hence, a combination of both manufacturing technologies i.e. conventional metal forming and additive manufacturing seems expedient for a number of applications. The current study develops a process chain combining forming and additive manufacturing. First, a semi-finished product is formed with forming tools of reduced complexity and then finished by additive manufacturing. This research investigates the addition of features using AlSi12 created by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) on formed EN-AW 6082 preforms. By forming, the strength of the material was increased, while this effect was partly reduced by the heat input of the WAAM process.

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Optimization of Cold Metal Transfer-Based Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Processes Using Gaussian Process Regression

Metals ◽

10.3390/met10040461 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 461

Author(s):

Seung Hwan Lee

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Gaussian Process ◽

Process Parameters ◽

Gaussian Process Regression ◽

Effective Area ◽

Raw Material ◽

Cold Metal Transfer ◽

High Productivity ◽

Multiple Variables ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is among the most promising additive manufacturing techniques for metals because it yields high productivity at low raw material costs. However, additional post-processing is required to remove redundant surface material from components manufactured by the WAAM process, and thus the productivity decreases. To increase productivity, multi-variable process parameters need to be optimized, including thermo-mechanical effects caused by high deposition rates. When the process is modeled, deposit shape and productivity are challenging to quantify due to uncertainty in multiple variables of the complicated WAAM process. Therefore, we modeled the WAAM process parameters, including uncertainties, using a Gaussian process regression (GPR) method, thus allowing us to develop a WAAM optimization model to improve both productivity and the quality of the deposit shape. The accuracy of the optimized output was verified through a close agreement with experimental values. The optimized deposited material had a wide effective area ratio, small height differences, and near 90° deposition angle, highlighting the usefulness of the GPR model approach to deposit nearly ideal material shapes.

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Analysis of the Wall Geometry with Different Strategies for High Deposition Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Mild Steel

Metals ◽

10.3390/met10070892 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (7) ◽

pp. 892 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Eider Aldalur ◽

Fernando Veiga ◽

Alfredo Suárez ◽

Jon Bilbao ◽

Aitzol Lamikiz

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Gas Metal Arc Welding ◽

Low Carbon Steel ◽

Utilization Rate ◽

High Deposition Rate ◽

Low Carbon ◽

Metal Arc Welding ◽

Geometric Precision ◽

Directed Energy ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing has gained relevance in recent decades as an alternative to the manufacture of metal parts. Among the additive technologies, those that are classified as Directed Energy Deposition (DED) are characterized by their high deposition rate, noticeably, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). However, having the inability to produce parts with acceptable final surface quality and high geometric precision is to be considered an important disadvantage in this process. In this paper, different torch trajectory strategies (oscillatory motion and overlap) in the fabrication of low carbon steel walls will be compared using Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)-based WAAM technology. The comparison is done with a study of the mechanical and microstructural characteristics of the produced walls and finally, addressing the productivity obtained utilizing each strategy. The oscillation strategy shows better results, regarding the utilization rate of deposited material and the flatness of the upper surface, this being advantageous for subsequent machining steps.

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Additive Manufacturing of Nickel-Based Superalloys

Volume 1: Additive Manufacturing; Bio and Sustainable Manufacturing ◽

10.1115/msec2018-6666 ◽

2018 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Benjamin Graybill ◽

Ming Li ◽

David Malawey ◽

Chao Ma ◽

Juan-Manuel Alvarado-Orozco ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Process Parameters ◽

High Performance ◽

Structural Integrity ◽

Elevated Temperatures ◽

Secondary Phases ◽

Treatment Regimens ◽

Operating Environments ◽

Manufacturing Technologies

Additive manufacturing enables the design of components with intricate geometries that can be manufactured with lead times much shorter when compared with conventional manufacturing. The ability to manufacture components out of high-performance metals through additive manufacturing technologies attracts industries that wish to develop more complex parts, but require components to maintain their structural integrity in demanding operating environments. Nickel-based superalloys are of particular interest due to their excellent mechanical, creep, wear, and oxidation properties at both ambient and elevated temperatures. However, relationship between process parameters and the resulting microstructure is still not well understood. The control of the microstructure, in particular the precipitation of secondary phases, is of critical importance to the performance of nickel-based superalloys. This paper reviews the additive manufacturing methods used to process nickel-based superalloys, the influence of the process parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties, the effectiveness of various heat treatment regimens, and the addition of particles in order to further improve mechanical properties.

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Residual Stress and Microstructure of a Ti-6Al-4V Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Hybrid Demonstrator

Metals ◽

10.3390/met10060701 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (6) ◽

pp. 701

Author(s):

Tatiana Mishurova ◽

Benjamin Sydow ◽

Tobias Thiede ◽

Irina Sizova ◽

Alexander Ulbricht ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Residual Stress ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Residual Stresses ◽

Structural Integrity ◽

Hybrid Approach ◽

Aerospace Applications ◽

Machined Parts ◽

Functional Features ◽

Tool Set ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) features high deposition rates and, thus, allows production of large components that are relevant for aerospace applications. However, a lot of aerospace parts are currently produced by forging or machining alone to ensure fast production and to obtain good mechanical properties; the use of these conventional process routes causes high tooling and material costs. A hybrid approach (a combination of forging and WAAM) allows making production more efficient. In this fashion, further structural or functional features can be built in any direction without using additional tools for every part. By using a combination of forging basic geometries with one tool set and adding the functional features by means of WAAM, the tool costs and material waste can be reduced compared to either completely forged or machined parts. One of the factors influencing the structural integrity of additively manufactured parts are (high) residual stresses, generated during the build process. In this study, the triaxial residual stress profiles in a hybrid WAAM part are reported, as determined by neutron diffraction. The analysis is complemented by microstructural investigations, showing a gradient of microstructure (shape and size of grains) along the part height. The highest residual stresses were found in the transition zone (between WAAM and forged part). The total stress range showed to be lower than expected for WAAM components. This could be explained by the thermal history of the component.

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Multi-Criteria Comparative Analysis of the Use of Subtractive and Additive Technologies in the Manufacturing of Offshore Machinery Components

Polish Maritime Research ◽

10.2478/pomr-2020-0048 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 27 (3) ◽

pp. 71-81

Author(s):

Mariusz Deja ◽

Mieczysław Stanisław Siemiątkowski ◽

Dawid Zieliński

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Production Method ◽

Industrial Applications ◽

Lead Times ◽

Efficient Production ◽

Cnc Milling ◽

Analytic Hierarchy ◽

3D Printed ◽

Offshore Industry ◽

Manufacturing Technologies

AbstractThe dynamic development of additive manufacturing technologies, especially over the last few years, has increased the range of possible industrial applications of 3D printed elements. This is a consequence of the distinct advantages of additive techniques, which include the possibility of improving the mechanical strength of products and shortening lead times. Offshore industry is one of these promising areas for the application of additive manufacturing. This paper presents a decision support method for the manufacturing of offshore equipment components, and compares a standard subtractive method with an additive manufacturing approach. An analytic hierarchy process was applied to select the most effective and efficient production method, considering CNC milling and direct metal laser sintering. A final set of decision criteria that take into account the specifics of the offshore industry sector are provided.

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Acoustic emissions in directed energy deposition processes

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology ◽

10.1007/s00170-021-08598-8 ◽

2022 ◽

Author(s):

Tobias Hauser ◽

Raven T. Reisch ◽

Tobias Kamps ◽

Alexander F. H. Kaplan ◽

Joerg Volpp

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Laser Beam ◽

Energy Deposition ◽

Process Analysis ◽

Acoustic Emissions ◽

Air Pressure ◽

Directed Energy Deposition ◽

Deposition Processes ◽

Directed Energy ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

AbstractAcoustic emissions in directed energy deposition processes such as wire arc additive manufacturing and directed energy deposition with laser beam/metal are investigated within this work, as many insights about the process can be gained from this. In both processes, experienced operators can hear whether a process is running stable or not. Therefore, different experiments for stable and unstable processes with common process anomalies were carried out, and the acoustic emissions as well as process camera images were captured. Thereby, it was found that stable processes show a consistent mean intensity in the acoustic emissions for both processes. For wire arc additive manufacturing, it was found that by the Mel spectrum, a specific spectrum adapted to human hearing, the occurrence of different process anomalies can be detected. The main acoustic source in wire arc additive manufacturing is the plasma expansion of the arc. The acoustic emissions and the occurring process anomalies are mainly correlating with the size of the arc because that is essentially the ionized volume leading to the air pressure which causes the acoustic emissions. For directed energy deposition with laser beam/metal, it was found that by the Mel spectrum, the occurrence of an unstable process can also be detected. The main acoustic emissions are created by the interaction between the powder and the laser beam because the powder particles create an air pressure through the expansion of the particles from the solid state to the liquid state when these particles are melted. These findings can be used to achieve an in situ quality assurance by an in-process analysis of the acoustic emissions.

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Microstructure, Mechanical and Corrosion Behavior of Additively Manufactured Steel: A Review (Part 1)

Materials Testing ◽

10.1515/mt-2020-620511 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 62 (5) ◽

pp. 503-516

Author(s):

Emel Taban ◽

Olatunji Oladimeji Ojo

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Future Research ◽

Research Directions ◽

Novel Technology ◽

Current State ◽

Future Research Directions ◽

Modern Manufacturing ◽

Mechanical Properties And Corrosion ◽

Manufacturing Technologies ◽

Insight Into

Abstract Flexible and digital manufacturing technologies like additive manufacturing (AM) have evolved as the future of modern manufacturing with the capability of obtaining multi-dimensional components and material functionality improvement. In the past decade, the additive manufacturing of steel has advanced into an effective approach for controlling local microstructure and fabricating hybrid build with tailored performance. As an emerging technology, there are still some challenges in the additive manufacturing of steel that need to be circumvented in order to attain the full potentials of this novel technology. This review paper examines the current state of additively manufactured steel as well as the associated microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion of as-built steel. An insight into further and future research directions is provided.

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Wire-arc additive manufacturing of Al-Mg alloy using CMT and PMC technologies

MATEC Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/matecconf/201823300031 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 233 ◽

pp. 00031 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Bianca F. Gomes ◽

Paulo J. Morais ◽

Vítor Ferreira ◽

Margarida Pinto ◽

Luiz H. de Almeida

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Raw Materials ◽

Industrial Applications ◽

The Other ◽

Mg Alloy ◽

Cold Metal Transfer ◽

Small Pore ◽

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing ◽

Pore Fraction

Among the several metallic additive manufacturing (MAM) technologies available, the wire-and-arc based ones are very beneficial due to the lower operational costs, higher efficiency use of raw materials, and high deposition rates achieved. The Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) process stands out by the lower heat input compared to the other wire-and-arc based methods. On the other hand, processes such as Pulse Multi Control (PMC) and its variants have not been tested yet in additive manufacturing and for this reason they should be evaluated. Therefore, considering the technologies potential and the need of automotive and aeronautical industry of manufacturing parts of complex and optimized geometry in a faster way, the study of these technologies is very relevant. Thus, the objective of this paper is the additive manufacturing of walls with Al-Mg alloy using CMT, CMT-Pulse, PMC, PMC-Mix, and MIG-Pulse, and the evaluation of the hardness, mechanical strength, and porosity of the manufactured parts aiming future industrial applications. The results showed good mechanical properties, small pore fraction, and geometric uniformity of parts produced with PMC and PMC-Mix. MIG-Pulse and PMC parts presented the smaller pore fraction among the GMAW variants, although no difference was noticed in the mechanical properties of the parts.

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