scholarly journals Post-Independence Institutional Efforts in Planned Housing Development in Amritsar (Punjab, India)

2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 7213-7219
Keyword(s):  
Private Sector ◽  
Central Government ◽  
Residential Development ◽  
Housing Demand ◽  
Housing Development ◽  
Role Of Government ◽  
The Government ◽  
Changing Role ◽  
The City ◽  
Working Out

After food and clothing, housing is the third basic requirement of mankind. The first effort towards institutional housing in India was made through British with establishment of Municipalities and Improvement Trusts. After independence in the year 1947, housing became the responsibility of the government and received third major allocation in the First Five Year Plan by the Central Government of India. The National Housing and Habitat Policy, 1998 emphasized on changing role of government from direct provider to enabler and the private sector is formally invited to participate in housing development. Amritsar is second metropolitan city of Punjab having population of 11.33 lakhs as per 2011 census. The city is facing fast urbanization growth that lead to increased housing demand. The city has different institutions that are working for the provision of housing including Municipal Corporation, Housing Board, Improvement Trust, Departmental Housing and Formal Private Sector Housing but still there exists the housing shortage of 21,504 with inclusion of non-durable structures. The paper aims at working out the contribution made by different institutions towards planned housing development in Amritsar out of total residential development. This paper examines the relationship between total residential development and institutional residential development in Amritsar.

scholarly journals Identifikasi Determinasi Faktor Penentu Lokasi Pembangunan Permukiman Masyarakat Dan Perumahan Yang Dibangun Oleh Swasta Di Kabupaten Muna

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 159
Author(s):  
Putri Putri ◽  
Irfan Ido ◽  
Noor Husna Khairisa
Keyword(s):  
Private Sector ◽  
Residential Development ◽  
Housing Development ◽  
Location Factors ◽  
Open Spaces ◽  
Determining Factors ◽  
Settlement Location ◽  
Environmental Network ◽  
The City ◽  
Sector Data

Abstrak: Pertambahan penduduk di Kabupaten Muna menyebabkan peningkatan kebutuhan akan rumah. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: (1) mengidentifikasi  faktor penentuan lokasi pembangunan permukiman masyarakat dan perumahan yang dibangun oleh swasta; (2) menganalisis perbedaan faktor dominan dalam penentuan lokasi pembangunan permukiman oleh masyarakat dan perumahan yang dibangun oleh swasta. Metode analisis data yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah analisis kuantitatif dan analisis kualitatif yang dilanjutkan dengan analisis faktor lokasi pembangunan permukiman dan pembangunan perumahan. Hasil penelitian ini antara lain: (1) Faktor penentu lokasi pembangunan permukiman oleh masyarakat dengan 3 urutan teratas antara lain: pelayanan air, listrik dan telepon, faktor kondisi jaringan lingkungan, dan keberadaan ruang terbuka. Faktor penentu lokasi pembangunan perumahan oleh swasta adalah faktor tingkat kemiringan lahan, faktor ketersediaan jaringan listrik, faktor kedekatan jarak, dan faktor kemudahan dalam pemasaran; (2) Faktor dominan dalam penentuan lokasi pembangunan permukiman oleh masyarakat antara lain tempat tinggal asal, ketersediaan lahan yang luas, harga tanah yang terjangkau, masuk dalam wilayah kota dan kondisi lingkungan. Sedangkan pengembang cenderung mempertimbangkan faktor letak, yaitu lokasi termasuk dalam daerah pengembangan kota, kedekatan jarak, lokasi yang strategis, harga tanah dan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan perumahan daerah.Kata kunci: Faktor penentu lokasi permukiman, faktor penentu lokasi perumahanAbstrak: Population growth in Muna Regency causes an increase in the need of house.This research aims to: (1) identify factors in determining the location of settlements development and housing development; (2) analyze the differences of dominant factors in determining the location of residential development by the community and housing builtby the private sector. Data in this research is analized by using quantitative and qualitative analysis followed by factor analysis of location of settlements development and housing development. The results of this study shows that: (1) The determining factors for the location of settlement development by the community with the top 3 ranking, namely, water, electricity and telephone services, environmental network conditions, and the existence of open spaces. The determining factors for the location of housing development by the private sector are the land slope, the availability of the electricity network, the proximity factor, and the convenience factor in marketing; (2) The dominant factors in determining the location of residential development by the communityi.e.the original place of resident, the available land is wide, affordable land prices, included in the city area and environmental conditions. Mean while, private sector tend to consider location factors, namely location is in urban development areas, proximity to distances, strategic locations, land price and to meet regional housing needs.Keywords: Determining factors of settlement location, determining factors of housing location

scholarly journals PEMBATALAN PERJANJIAN BANGUN GUNA SERAH (BUILD OPERATE TRANSFER/BOT) ANTARA PEMERINTAH DAERAH KOTA BOGOR DENGAN PIHAK SWASTA (PT PANCAKARYA GRAHATAMA INDONESIA) DITINJAU DARI SUDUT KITAB UNDANG-UNDANG HUKUM PERDATA

2018 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 1638
Author(s):  
Lorenzo Marco ◽  
Gunawan Djajaputra
Keyword(s):  
Research Method ◽  
Field Data ◽  
Central Government ◽  
Municipal Government ◽  
Criminal Code ◽  
City Government ◽  
Legal Research ◽  
The Government ◽  
The City ◽  
Binding Agreement

The BOT (Build Operate Transfer) Agreement between Bogor Municipal Government and PT Pancakarya Grahatama Indonesia is an agreement to optimize Baranangsiang terminal assets as stated in the agreement Number: 601 / Perj.418-BPKAD / 2012 / Number: 005 / PGI / DIR / VI / 2012 . Until now, the agreement of both parties has not been able to be considered because of the change of authority of the terminal which formerly the authority of the City Government of Bogor to switch to the Central Government, resulting problems Whether the Government / Mayor Bogor can cancel the unilateral agreement BOT in the construction of Terminal Baranangsiang viewed from the point Civil Code? The research method used is normative legal research method supported by interview and field data. Based on the analysis that the BOT agreement between Bogor City Government and PT Pancakarya Grahatama is a valid and binding agreement between both parties and can not be canceled unilaterally by Bogor City Government, although there are new regulations that change the authority of terminal A Baranangsiang become the authority of Central Government . The Agreement may be canceled if it violates Article 1320 of the Criminal Code or violates the subjective and objective terms of the validity of the agreement. When the agreement is mutually agreed upon by both parties, the agreement must continue and act as a binding law as regulated in Article 1338 of the Criminal Code. Bogor City Government should immediately provide certainty to the PT Pancakarya Grahatama Indonesia for Baranangsiang terminal revitalization project can be immediately realized and need a revision (adedendum) agreement between the Government of Bogor City with PT Pancakarya Grahatama Indonesia related to changes in authority of terminal A Baranangsiang between PT. PGI with the Central Government.

scholarly journals Advocacy Coalition Framework Dalam Tata Kelola Perkotaan Berbasis Ruang Terbuka Hijau Di Kota Makassar

2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 146
Author(s):  
Wahdania Suardi ◽  
Suswanta Suswanta
Keyword(s):  
Private Sector ◽  
Urban Governance ◽  
Open Space ◽  
City Government ◽  
Political Will ◽  
Field Notes ◽  
The Government ◽  
Role Of The Government ◽  
The City

This study aims to describe the role of the government-private and role of the government-NGO coalition in Green Open Space Based Urban Governance in Makassar City. This type of research is qualitative, research conducted to systematically search for and compile all data obtained, both interview data, field notes and other data that support research. The results of this study indicate that the confidence of the private / private sector in the city government green open space policy is still low because the government's political will problem is that it does not involve all components in the private sector. One of the strategies is optimizing planters in RTR in strategic areas such as in the Untia region. The strategy that is pressed on the private sector is segmentation of activities that can increase green open space. Decisions taken by the private or private sector are based on the mission of the organization itself which has environmental concerns as outlined through CSR programs, the program is not intervened by the city government. Although there have been Regional Regulations Number 3 of 2014 concerning the arrangement and management of green open spaces but not yet assessed WALHI has provided significant progress for the addition of RTH in Makassar Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan peran koalisi pemerintah-swasta dan peran koalisi pemerintah-LSM Dalam Tata Kelola Perkotaan Berbasis Ruang Terbuka Hijau (RTH) di Kota Makassar. Jenis penelitian ini adalah kualitatif, penelitian yang dilakukan untuk mencari dan menyusun secara sistematis seluruh data yang diperoleh baik itu data hasil wawancara, catatan lapangan dan data-data lain yang sifatnya menunjang penelitian. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa keyakinan sektor swasta/privat terhadap kebijakan RTH pemerintah kota masih rendah karena persoalan political will dari pemerintah yang kurang melibatkan seluruh komponen pada sektor swasta. Salah satu strateginya adalah optimalisasi penanam pada RTR Kawasan strategis seperti di Kawasan Untia. Strategi yang ditekan pada pihak swasta adalah segmentasi pada kegiatan yang dapat meningkatkan ruang terbuka hijau. Keputusan yang diambil sektor privat atau swasta adalah berdasarkan misi dari organisasi itu sendiri yang memiliki kepedulian terhadap lingkungan yang dituangkan melalui program CSR, program tersebut tidak mendapat intervensi oleh pemerintah kota. Meskipun telah ada Peraturan Daerah Nomor 3 Tahun 2014 tentang penataan dan pengelolaan ruang terbuka hijau namun belum dinilai WALHI memberikan kemajuan berarti bagi penambahan RTH di Kota Makassar

scholarly journals FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI PEMANFAATAN TIK OLEH GURU

2015 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 121
Author(s):  
Sri Lestari
Keyword(s):  
Private Sector ◽  
Learning Strategies ◽  
Subject Matter ◽  
Central Government ◽  
Learning Activities ◽  
Policy Support ◽  
Intensive Training ◽  
Ict Tools ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Government

Not all teachers utilize ICT in organizing learning activities although they have understood that such learning strategies which really support or help level the learners mastery of the subject matter. Constraint the use of ICT by teachers are: no access, no adaanya means of ICT, learning does not integrate ICT, teachers have no knowledge of ICT, and no lack of willingness of teachers to utilize ICT. So the solution of problems utilization of ICT are: conducted socialization constantly about the potential, the benefits and importance of ICT in learning activities so that there is policy support, not only from the central government, local government, private agencies but also from the head school, (2) conducted more intensive training with a more lax or inadequate so it is possible for teachers to put into practice the results of training in the classroom, (3) the teachers responded to the advancement of ICT positively by action through the use of ICT in learning activities be a professional duties, and (4) implemented the procurement of ICT tools in schools gradually and berkelajuta, either through the government, the private sector and the community. AbstrakBelum semua guru memanfaatkan TIK dalam menyelenggarakan kegiatan pembelajaran yang diampunya walaupun mereka telah memahami bahwa strategi pembelajaran yang demikian ini sangat menunjang atau membantu tingkat penguasaan peserta didik terhadap materi pelajaran. Kendala pemanfaatan TIK oleh guru adalah: tidak adanya akses, tidak adaanya sarana TIK, pembelajaran tidak mengintegrasikan TIK, guru tidak memiliki pengetahuan tentang TIK, dan tidak adanya kemauan guru untuk memanfaatkan TIK. Sehingga solusi dari kendala pemanfaaatan TIK adalah: dilakukan sosialisasi yang terusmenerus tentang potensi, manfaat, dan pentingnya TIK di dalam kegiatan pembelajaran sehingga ada dukungan kebijakan, tidak hanya dari pemerintah pusat, pemerintah daerah, instansi swasta tetapi juga dari kepala sekolah, dilaksanakan pelatihan yang lebih intensif dengan waktu yang lebih longgar atau memadai sehingga dimungkinkan bagi guru untuk mempraktekkan hasil pelatihan di dalam kelas, para guru merespons kemajuan TIK secara positif dengan tindakan nyata melalui pemanfaatan TIK di dalam kegiatan pembelajaran yang menjadi tugas profesionalnya, dan dilaksanakan pengadaan perangkat TIK di sekolah secara bertahap dan berkelajutan, baik melalui pemerintah, pihak swasta maupun masyarakat.

scholarly journals Role of the government in the implementation of local development case study on national programa local development

2021 ◽  
pp. 47220-47231
Keyword(s):  
Central Government ◽  
Local Development ◽  
National Development ◽  
Physical Development ◽  
Process Data ◽  
Role Of Government ◽  
The Government ◽  
Role Of The Government

This thesis is entitled “ The Role of Government in the Implementation of Local Development (Case Study in the Administrative Post of Uatolari) “ Local development is a measure of national development where the development growth in an advanced sub-district will automatically reflect the development itself. In the sub-district, development has been carried out which in the research will highlight physical development. Physical development in the sub-district in accordance with its implementation has not reached the planned target in accordance with the expectations of the community in the Uatolari sub-district. Thus, the problem can be formulated as follows: How is the government role in implementing local development?. The theoretical basis used in this chapter, the writer wants to explain the theory according to Prajudi (2000), the role of government in the implementation of development, while the method used in this research is descriptive method with research techniques such as qualitative data analysis, the subject of what is being studied is The functions and tasks that exist in the Uatolari sub-district and the object under study are affirming the implementation of physical development in the Uatolari sub-district consisting of 6 people, the instruments used are observation, interviews, documentation and interviews (asking and answering) to collect data and to process data to completion. The conclusion from the research results found that the role of the government in implementation in the uatolari sub-district is still lacking due to a lack of control, therefore it is necessary for the central government to monitor, supervise the physical development that is being built or in progress so that it will accelerate according to the specified time. Recommended to the Ministry of Home Affairs and Regional Development to pay attention to the Viqueque district national development agency in order to accelerate the process of implementing local development, in accordance with the expectations of the community, especially the ongoing infrastructure development in accordance with the national development strategic plan.

scholarly journals National approaches towards implementation of artificial intelligence: Singapore’s experience

2020 ◽  
pp. 62-73
Author(s):  
Ella Gorian
Keyword(s):  
Artificial Intelligence ◽  
Private Sector ◽  
Self Regulation ◽  
National Level ◽  
Personal Data ◽  
Role Of Government ◽  
Normative Documents ◽  
Personal Data Protection ◽  
The Government

The object of this research is the relations in the area of implementation of artificial intelligence technologies. The subject of this research is the normative documents of Singapore that establish requirements towards development and application of artificial intelligence technologies. The article determines the peculiarities of Singaporean approach towards regulation of relations in the indicated sphere. Characteristic is given to the national initiative and circle of actors involved in the development and realization of normative provisions with regards to implementation of digital technologies. The author explores the aspects of private public partnership, defines the role of government in regulation of relation, as well as gives special attention to the question of ensuring personal data protection used by the artificial intelligence technologies. Positive practices that can be utilized in Russian strategy for the development of artificial intelligence are described. Singapore applies the self-regulation approach towards the processes of implementation of artificial intelligence technologies, defining the backbone role of the government, establishing common goals, and involving representative of private sector and general public. Moreover, the government acts as the guarantor of meeting the interests of private sector by creating an attractive investment regime and citizens, setting strict requirements with regards to data usage and control over the artificial intelligence technologies. A distinguishing feature of Singaporean approach consists in determination of the priority sectors of economy and instruments of ensuring systematicity in implementation of artificial intelligence. Singapore efficiently uses its demographic and economic peculiarities for proliferation of the technologies of artificial intelligence in Asian Region; the developed and successfully tested on the national level model of artificial intelligence management received worldwide recognition and application. Turning Singapore into the international center of artificial intelligence is also instigated by the improvement of legal regime with simultaneous facilitation in the sphere of intellectual property. These specificities should be taken into account by the Russian authors of national strategy for the development of artificial intelligence.

scholarly journals Kemitraan Pemerintah dan Swasta dalam Kebijakan Pengelolaan Sampah di Kota Pekanbaru

2019 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
pp. 60
Author(s):  
Isril ' ◽  
Rury Febrina ◽  
Zulfa Harirah
Keyword(s):  
Waste Management ◽  
Private Sector ◽  
City Government ◽  
Regional Government ◽  
Structural Factors ◽  
Reinventing Government ◽  
The Government ◽  
Process Factors ◽  
The Right ◽  
The City

The partnership between the Regional Government and the private sector is a step that the Government can take as an effort to cover up the limitations in waste management in the city of Pekanbaru. The dynamics of rapid population growth have had consequences for increasing the volume of garbage to approximately 1,100 tons per day. The Pekanbaru City Government then took steps to implement partnerships with the private sector as an effort to manage waste management. However, the involvement of the private sector in dealing with waste issues actually showed a failure in 2015. In 2018, the Pekanbaru City Government again planned to submit waste management to the private sector. Therefore, this study tries to focus on two formulations of the problem, which is why the Pekanbaru City Government again delegates the authority to manage waste in the city of Pekanbaru to the private sector? And what is the right scheme for government and private partnerships in carrying out waste management in Pekanbaru City? To answer the above questions, this research was escorted by the Reinventing Government theory of David Osborne and Ted Gaebler and also the theory of Public Private Partnership. Through the case study method, this research will explore the partnership between Pekanbaru City Government and the private sector in waste management in Pekanbaru City. The results showed that the objective of the partnership between the Regional Government of Pekanbaru and third parties in waste management in the city of Pekanbaru was to overcome the inability of the Pekanbaru City Government to provide facilities and infrastructure, garbage fleets, human resources and budget constraints. Thus, the logic of this partnership leads to one of the lines of thought offered by Osborn regarding the Catalytic Government (Steering Rather Than Rowing). The scheme of success of the partnership of Pekanbaru City Government and the private sector in waste management needs to pay attention to process factors, partner factors and structural factors. Thus, waste management in the city of Pekanbaru requires a paradigm shift, from being limited to disposal to become a focus on management and utilization.

scholarly journals CONSTRUCTION RIPPLE PHENOMENON AND THE RISE OF ‘GENERIC BUILDINGS’ IN YOGYAKARTA

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 87
Author(s):  
Trias Mahendarto
Keyword(s):  
Private Sector ◽  
Rapid Development ◽  
Unique Characteristic ◽  
Planning Stage ◽  
The Past ◽  
The Future ◽  
The Government ◽  
The City ◽  
Economic Modernization ◽  
Urban Characteristics

Abstract: Starting from the past decade, Indonesia is growing rapidly in the construction of infrastructures that are being fully supported by the government in order to reach the goal of becoming one of the leading countries in the future. Such development created the construction ripple phenomenon that was instigated by the private sector to fill the construction voids left by the rapid development of infrastructure, and it pressurizes cities to grow or change in order to coup with the infrastructure advancements. This phenomenon has affected the cities in Indonesia, even those that are not considered as the planned centers of developments, such as Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta is experiencing the effects of the ripple in the form of the rising number of generic buildings that are spreading fast around the city. This will, in turn, dictate the future of Yogyakarta’s ever-evolving Genius Loci. This research will see how much the construction ripple phenomenon has affected the city of Yogyakarta by conducting surveys on the generic buildings that have been built or in the planning stage of construction. A thorough analysis will be then made, also by conducting literature studies, to conclude the ways and steps to try maintaining Yogyakarta’s unique characteristic as a city in the ever-growing pressure of economic modernization that is currently spreading throughout Indonesia. If these steps are being done correctly, then Yogyakarta can become one of the examples of how cities in Indonesia coup with the construction ripple phenomenon without can losing its unique urban characteristics. Keywords: construction ripple phenomenon, Yogyakarta, Generic buildings, Genius LociAbstrak: Semenjak decade terakhir, Indonesia sedang mengalami perkembangan signifikan di bidang pembangunan infrastuktur yang didukung penuh oleh Pemerintah agar dapat mengejar target untuk menjadi salah satu negara maju di masa depan. Perkembangan tersebut memunculkan fenomena ‘construction ripple’, yang didorong oleh sektor swasta untuk mengisi kekosongan pembangunan karena pemerintah hanya berkonsentrasi pada pembangunan infrastuktur, dan hal tersebut menekan kota-kota untuk berkembang atau berubah. Fenomena ini telah terjadi di berbagai kota di Indonesia, bahkan di kota yang tidak menjadi pusat perkembangan infrastuktur, seperti kota Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta sedang mengalami efek dari fenomena ini dalam bentuk munculnya bangunan generik yang tersebar luas di seluruh kota. Perkembangan ini akan mempengaruhi masa depan Genius Loci kota Yogyakarta, yang terus berevolusi. Penelitian ini melihat sejauh mana bangunan generik mempengaruhi kota Yogyakarta, melalui survey bangunan generik yang terbangun atau sedang dalam proses pembangunan. Analisis mendalam dilakukan, dengan disertai studi literatur, untuk melihat cara menjaga keunikan kota Yogyakarta terhadap tekanan pembangunan yang terus terjadi. Diharapkan kota Yogyakarta menjadi contoh kota-kota di Indonesia menerima efek fenomena ‘construction ripple’ tanpa kehilangan kekhasan.Kata kunci: construction ripple phenomenon, Yogyakarta, bangunan generik, Genius Loci

scholarly journals System Justification and Coronavirus Restrictions Support: the Role of Government Trust and Conspiracy Belief

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (3) ◽  
pp. 59-73
Author(s):  
I.R. Sarieva ◽  
N.I. Bogatyreva
Keyword(s):  
System Justification ◽  
Russian Language ◽  
Role Of Government ◽  
Language Version ◽  
Negative Effect ◽  
Conspiracy Beliefs ◽  
The Government ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
The City

Objective. Analysis of the relationship between system justification, trust in the government, conspiracy beliefs and coronavirus restrictions. Background. The 2020 coronavirus pandemic has shown that people react differently to the restrictions associated with the coronavirus. In Russia, society is not willing to support restrictions and believes in conspiracy theories in the context of the coronavirus. Study design. The relationship between system justification and supporting coronavirus restrictions was examined. System justification was an independent variable, support for coronavirus restrictions was dependent, trust in the government and conspiracy belief consistently mediated this connection. The presence and nature of the relationship was checked using linear regression. Gender, age, and religiosity were counted as covariates. Participants. The sample consisted of 1677 residents of Russia (66.9% of women, aged 18 to 76, M=31.96, SD=10.96). Measurements. The Russian-language version of the J. Jost system justification scale, questions about trust in the government, attitudes towards coronavirus as a means of limiting freedoms and towards restrictions: closing the country’s borders and banning movement in the city. Results. It was found that there was a direct negative effect of system justification on supporting border closures and travel bans in the city with an indirect positive effect in the models with mediators. Conclusions. System justification can have different effects on supporting coronavirus restrictions.

scholarly journals Post-ISIS Iraq and the Shia Armed Groups

2019 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
pp. 122-137
Author(s):  
Kardo Rached ◽  
Ahmed Omar Bali
Keyword(s):  
Central Government ◽  
The Political ◽  
Political Environment ◽  
Islamic State ◽  
Armed Groups ◽  
Weberian Theory ◽  
Supreme Leader ◽  
The Government ◽  
The City ◽  
Self Defence

The political environment of Iraq in the period from 2011-2014 experienced a great degree of turbulence. Many Sunni tribes in the Anbar, Ramadi and Salahadin regions organized a daily protest against the central government, accusing it of being sectarian. Gradually, these protests become more popular, and the Baghdad government became fearful that it would spread into the other regions of Iraq. In order to control the protests, the government used force, and many were killed. Simultaneously, in Syria, and especially during 2013-2014, the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) controlled more land and more people, and to take advantage of the Iraqi people's dissatisfaction with their government, ISIS crossed the border between Iraq and Syria in June 2014. Mosul as the second most heavily populated city was seized by ISIS and the Iraqi army could not fight back, which meant that the Iraqi army retreated from most of the Sunni areas. Even Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, and the city where the central government operates, was threatened. While the Iraqi army was unable to fight against ISIS, the Shia religious supreme leader Al-Sistani called for self-defence and to stand against ISIS. Sistani’s call became a cornerstone for the creation of the so-called Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) with the aim of the fighting against ISIS. In this article, we assess the PMF from different perspectives, for example, using the Weberian theory that the state is the only entity that has a monopoly on violence, considering Ariel Ahram's model of state-sponsored and government-sponsored militias, and finally the devolution of violence to these armed groups.

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