scholarly journals Trends of COVID-19 in the Central Africa Sub-region: Effective Health Care, Effect of Endogenous Parameters or a Matter of Time?

2021 ◽  
pp. 170-186
Author(s):  
Mbarga M. J. Arsene ◽  
Hippolyte T. Mouafo ◽  
I. V. Podoprigora ◽  
L. A. Smolyakova ◽  
N. V. Yashina ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Democratic Republic Of Congo ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Principal Component ◽  
World Health ◽  
Equatorial Guinea ◽  
Percentage Error ◽  
Absolute Deviation ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Traditional Medicines ◽  
Sao Tome And Principe

Background: After the worldwide spread of the coronavirus pandemic, several experts predicted a health catastrophe in Africa. However, the expected earthquake ultimately did not occur and the statistics of the number COVID-19 cases and deaths for other continents (Europe, America, Asia) were far higher than those of Africa. This study focused on Central Africa tried to explain this low incidence of COVID-19. Methodology: A cross-sectional time series method was adopted and the data of COVID-19 cases and deaths for Angola, Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, Congo Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Sao Tome and Principe between March and November 2020 were extracted from the World Health Organization COVID-19 database. The evolution of COVID-19 cases and deaths for each country were plotted and the accuracy measures such as Mean Absolute Percentage Error, Median Absolute Deviation and Mean Squared Displacement were calculated. Association between the countries and the prevalence of cases, deaths and recovered was visualized through principal component analysis. Results: The results showed that the highest number of cases was observed in Cameroon (21,793) while Sao Tome and Principe scored the smallest one (962). However, based on the total population, the prevalence of COVID-19 cases was high in Sao Tome and Principe (0.436%) and Gabon (0.400%). The highest death percentages (≥2%) were observed in Chad (6.742%), RDC (2.708%) and Angola (2.592%) while the highest recovered percentages were in Gabon (99.10%), Equatorial Guinea (97.62%) and Cameroon (97.02%). Development of traditional medicines and modification of food behavior including consumption of plant extracts appear as the reasons for the highest recovered rates. The accuracy measurements showed that the trend curves were not correlated with the actual evolution of the pandemic, but the Spearman correlation test revealed that except Equatorial Guinea (r=0.042, p=0.817), the evolution of COVID-19 cases and deaths were strongly correlated. Conclusion: The overall prevalence and incidence of COVID-19 is low in the countries of the Central Africa sub-region despite the problems facing the health systems of these countries.

scholarly journals An analysis of heavy metals contamination and estimating the daily intakes of vegetables from Uganda

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. 239784732098525
Author(s):  
Keneth Iceland Kasozi ◽  
Eric Oloya Otim ◽  
Herbert Izo Ninsiima ◽  
Gerald Zirintunda ◽  
Andrew Tamale ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heavy Metals ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Principal Component ◽  
Absorption Spectrometry ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Essential Elements ◽  
World Health ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Health Organization ◽  
Daily Intakes

Background: Environmental contamination with elevated levels of copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr6+), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni)—all states of which are found in Uganda—raises health risk to the public. Pb, Cr6+, Cd, and Ni for instance are generally considered nonessential to cellular functions, notwithstanding the importance of the oxidative state of the metals in bioavailability. As such, we aimed in this study (i) to evaluate heavy metal concentrations in four vegetables from a typical open-air market in Uganda, (ii) to assess the safety of consuming these vegetables against the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits of heavy metals consumption, and (iii) to formulate a model of estimated daily intake (EDI) among consumers in the country. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in five georeferenced markets of Bushenyi district in January 2020. Amaranthus, cabbages, scarlet eggplants, and tomatoes were collected from open markets, processed, and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Modeled EDI, principal component (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were conducted to identify relationships in the samples. Results: The levels of essential elements in the four vegetables were found to fall from Co > Cu > Fe > Zn. Those of non-essential metals were significantly higher and followed the pattern Cd > Cr > Pb > Ni. The highest EDI values were those of Cu in scarlet eggplants, Zn in amaranthus, Fe in amaranthus, Co in amaranthus, Pb in cabbages, total Cr in scarlet eggplant, Cd in cabbages and tomatoes, and Ni in cabbages. In comparison to international limits, EDIs for Zn, Cu, Co and Fe were low while Ni in cabbages were high. PCA showed high variations in scarlet eggplant and amaranthus. The study vegetables were found to be related with each other, not according to the location of the markets from where they were obtained, but according to their species by CA. Conclusion: The presence of non-essential elements above WHO limits raises policy challenges for the consumption and marketing of vegetables in the study area. Furthermore, low EDIs of essential elements in the vegetables create demand for nutritious foods to promote healthy communities.

scholarly journals Use of Un-Prescribed Drugs and Traditional Medications among Pregnant Women Attending Primary Health Centres in Kano, Nigeria

2020 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Gambo I M
Keyword(s):  
Pregnant Women ◽  
Community Involvement ◽  
Herbal Medicines ◽  
Educational Status ◽  
Total Sample ◽  
World Health ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Traditional Medicines ◽  
The Government

The use and misuse of drugs in Sub Saharan region are of public health concern. Exposures to un-prescribed drugs and traditional medications are frequent and create a great danger in pregnant women. The use of herbal medicines has been on the increase in many developing and industrialized countries. The study examined the use of traditional medications and un-prescribed orthodox medicines for gestational mothers. A descriptive cross-sectional design & inferential statistic were employed for the study and a total sample of one hundred and ninety-six was used. A standardized data collection form was employed based on the World Health Organization criteria and the obtained data were analyzed using SPSS Version 22.The result showed that most of the respondents were between the age of 22- 27 years with the mean age of 24 years and majority of the respondents (63.3%) used both un-prescribed drugs and traditional medicines during pregnancy, while 27.0% used only un-prescribed drugs and 9.7% use only traditional medications. More so, the results revealed that pain killers’ drug were the leading cause for misused. Also, the results demonstrated a significant relationship between respondent’s awareness of harm associated with use of un-prescribed medications and educational status, (P < 0.01). The study concluded a wide spread use of un-prescribed drugs and traditional medications among pregnant women and therefore, recommend the need for health education and massive campaign with community involvement against the wrong practices by both the healthcare practioners and the government.

scholarly journals IMPLEENTASI MODEL HYBRID DALAM MEMPREDIKSI PENYEBARAN COVID-19 DI WILAYAH JAWA BARAT

SEMINASTIKA ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 124-137
Author(s):  
Tatang Rohana Cucu
Keyword(s):  
World Health Organization ◽  
Error Rate ◽  
World Health ◽  
Percentage Error ◽  
Mean Absolute Deviation ◽  
Absolute Deviation ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Absolute Percentage Error ◽  
Hybrid Data ◽  
Health Organization

Di awal tahun 2020, dunia dikagetkan dengan kejadian infeksi berat dengan penyebab yang belum diketahui, yang berawal dari laporan dari Cina kepada World Health Organization (WHO) terdapatnya 44 pasien pneumonia yang berat di suatu wilayah yaitu Kota Wuhan, Provinsi Hubei, China, tepatnya di akhir tahun 2019. Pada perkembangannya, wabah ini kemudian diidentifikasi sebagai wabah Virus Covid-19. Penambahan jumlah kasus COVID-19 berlangsung sangat cepat, sampai dengan 16 Februari 2020, secara global dilaporkan 51.857 kasus terkonfirmasi di 25 negara dengan 1.669 kematian (CFR 3,2%). Di Indonesia ada lebih dari 2 ribu kasus ditemukan dan hampir 200 orang telah meninggal. Di wilayah Jawa barat, kasus positif Covid-19 juga terus bertambah. Data penyebaran virus Corona Covid-19 di Jawa Barat mengalami perubahan, Rabu (1/4/2020). Terpantau melalui situs resmi Pusat Informasi dan Koordinasi Covid-19 Provinsi Jawa Barat (Pikobar), jumlah orang terpapar positif Corona mencapai 198 orang. Data yang diakses dari pikobar.jabarprov.go.id tersebut juga merilis sudah ada 11 pasien yang dinyatakan sembuh dan diperbolehkan pulang dari rumah sakit. Sementara jumlah pasien yang meninggal dunia berjumlah 21 orang. Sedangkan untuk pasien dalam pengawasan (PDP), jumlah yang telah diproses dalam pengawasan mencapai 727 orang. Sedangkan yang telah selesai menjalani pengawasan mencapai 242 orang. Total PDP di Jabar berjumlah 969 orang. Berbekal dari data Pusat Informasi dan Koordinasi Covid-19 Jawa Barat, penulis tertarik melakukan penelitian untuk memprediksi penyebaran kasus positif Covid-19 di Jawa Barat. Dalam penelitian ini, model yang digunakan adalah Hybrid. Data set yang digunakan adalah data pasien positif Covid-19 mulai bulan April 2020 sampai dengan bulan Februari 2021. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang sudah dilakukan, model Hybrid mampu memprediksi jumlah penyebaran kasus Covid-19 di Jawa Barat. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan hasil training teknik Hybrid memiliki error rate sebesar 0,4615, yang dilanjutkan dengan analisa akurasi prediksi selama tiga bulan, yaitu bulan Desember 2020, Januari, dan Febrauri 2021. Dari hasil prediksi, model Hybrid memiliki nilai rata – rata Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) sebesar 351. Sedangkan berdasarkan analisa prediksi dengan teknik Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) memiliki rata rata tingkat kesalahan sebesar 0,2061 atau 20,6%.

scholarly journals High Aedes spp. larval indices in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wat’senga Tezzo Francis ◽  
Fasine Sylvie ◽  
Manzambi Emile Zola ◽  
Marquetti Maria del Carmen ◽  
Binene Mbuka Guillaume ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Yellow Fever ◽  
Rainy Season ◽  
Democratic Republic ◽  
Democratic Republic Of Congo ◽  
Dry Season ◽  
World Health ◽  
Morphological Identification ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Republic Of Congo ◽  
Larval Habitats

Abstract BACKGROUND: Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya and Zika are among the most important emerging infectious vector-borne diseases worldwide. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), increases in cases of dengue and outbreaks of yellow fever and chikungunya have been reported since 2010. The main vectors of these arboviruses, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, have been reported in DRC, but there is a lack of detailed information on their presence and spread to guide disease control efforts.METHODS: In 2018, two cross-sectional surveys were conducted in Kinshasa province (DRC), one in the rainy (January/February) and one in the dry season (July). Four hundred houses were visited in each of the four selected communes (N’Djili, Mont Ngafula, Lingwala and Kalamu). Within the peri-domestic area of each household, searches were conducted for larval habitats which were then surveyed for the presence of Aedes larvae and pupae. A subset of the immature specimens were reared to adults for morphological identification followed by DNA-barcoding of the specimens to validate identifications.RESULTS: The most rural commune (Mont Ngafula) had the highest pupal index of 246 (20) pupae/100 houses and a Breteau Index of 82.2 (19.5)/100 houses, while this latter was 21.5 (4.7), 36.7 (9.8) and 41.7 (7.5) in Kalamu, Lingwala and N’Djili in the rainy (and dry) season, respectively. The House Index was on average across all communes 27.5% (7.6%); and the Container Index 15.0% (10.0%) in rainy (and dry) season, respectively. The vast majority of Aedes positive containers were found outside the houses (adjusted OR 27.4 (95%CI 14.9-50.1)). During the dry season, the most productive containers were the ones used for water storage, whereas in the rainy season rubbish and tires constituted key habitats. Both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were found. Anopheles larvae were found in different types of Aedes larval habitats, especially during the rainy season. CONCLUSIONS: In both surveys and in all communes, the larval indices (BI) were higher than the arbovirus transmission threshold values established by the World Health Organization. Management strategies for controlling Aedes in Kinshasa need to target the key containers, mainly located in outdoor spaces, for larval habitats destruction or reduction.

scholarly journals Quantifying epidemiological drivers of gambiense human African Trypanosomiasis across the Democratic Republic of Congo

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
pp. e1008532
Author(s):  
Ronald E. Crump ◽  
Ching-I Huang ◽  
Edward S. Knock ◽  
Simon E. F. Spencer ◽  
Paul E. Brown ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Human African Trypanosomiasis ◽  
Democratic Republic ◽  
Democratic Republic Of Congo ◽  
Probability Distributions ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
World Health ◽  
Model Parameters ◽  
African Trypanosomiasis ◽  
Republic Of Congo ◽  
Variable Screening

Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT) is a virulent disease declining in burden but still endemic in West and Central Africa. Although it is targeted for elimination of transmission by 2030, there remain numerous questions about the drivers of infection and how these vary geographically. In this study we focus on the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), which accounted for 84% of the global case burden in 2016, to explore changes in transmission across the country and elucidate factors which may have contributed to the persistence of disease or success of interventions in different regions. We present a Bayesian fitting methodology, applied to 168 endemic health zones (∼100,000 population size), which allows for calibration of a mechanistic gHAT model to case data (from the World Health Organization HAT Atlas) in an adaptive and automated framework. It was found that the model needed to capture improvements in passive detection to match observed trends in the data within former Bandundu and Bas Congo provinces indicating these regions have substantially reduced time to detection. Health zones in these provinces generally had longer burn-in periods during fitting due to additional model parameters. Posterior probability distributions were found for a range of fitted parameters in each health zone; these included the basic reproduction number estimates for pre-1998 (R0) which was inferred to be between 1 and 1.14, in line with previous gHAT estimates, with higher median values typically in health zones with more case reporting in the 2000s. Previously, it was not clear whether a fall in active case finding in the period contributed to the declining case numbers. The modelling here accounts for variable screening and suggests that underlying transmission has also reduced greatly—on average 96% in former Equateur, 93% in former Bas Congo and 89% in former Bandundu—Equateur and Bandundu having had the highest case burdens in 2000. This analysis also sets out a framework to enable future predictions for the country.

scholarly journals High Aedes spp. larval indices in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wat’senga Tezzo Francis ◽  
Fasine Sylvie ◽  
Manzambi Emile Zola ◽  
Marquetti Maria del Carmen ◽  
Binene Mbuka Guillaume ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Yellow Fever ◽  
Rainy Season ◽  
Democratic Republic ◽  
Democratic Republic Of Congo ◽  
Dry Season ◽  
World Health ◽  
Morphological Identification ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Republic Of Congo ◽  
Larval Habitats

Abstract BACKGROUND: Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya and Zika are among the most important emerging infectious vector-borne diseases worldwide. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), increases in cases of dengue and outbreaks of yellow fever and chikungunya have been reported since 2010. The main vectors of these arboviruses, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, have been reported in DRC, but there is a lack of detailed information on their presence and spread to guide disease control efforts.METHODS: In 2018, two cross-sectional surveys were conducted in Kinshasa province (DRC), one in the rainy (January/February) and one in the dry season (July). Four hundred houses were visited in each of the four selected communes (N’Djili, Mont Ngafula, Lingwala and Kalamu). Within the peri-domestic area of each household, searches were conducted for larval habitats which were then surveyed for the presence of Aedes larvae and pupae. A subset of the immature specimens were reared to adults for morphological identification followed by DNA-barcoding of the specimens to validate identifications.RESULTS: The most rural commune (Mont Ngafula) had the highest pupal index of 246 (20) pupae/100 houses and a Breteau Index of 82.2 (19.5)/100 houses, while this latter was 21.5 (4.7), 36.7 (9.8) and 41.7 (7.5) in Kalamu, Lingwala and N’Djili in the rainy (and dry) season, respectively. The House Index was on average across all communes 27.5% (7.6%); and the Container Index 15.0% (10.0%) in rainy (and dry) season, respectively. The vast majority of Aedes positive containers were found outside the houses (adjusted OR 27.4 (95%CI 14.9-50.1)). During the dry season, the most productive containers were the ones used for water storage, whereas in the rainy season trash and tires constituted key habitats. Both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were found. Anopheles larvae were found in different types of Aedes larval habitats, especially during the rainy season. CONCLUSIONS: . In both surveys and in all communes, the larval indices (BI) were higher than the arbovirus transmission threshold values established by the World Health Organization. Management strategies for controlling Aedes in Kinshasa need to target outdoor spaces for larval habitats destruction or reduction.

scholarly journals Pholcid spiders from the Lower Guinean region of Central Africa: an overview, with descriptions of seven new species (Araneae, Pholcidae)

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bernhard A. Huber ◽  
Philippe Le Gall ◽  
Jacques François Mavoungou
Keyword(s):  
New Species ◽  
West Africa ◽  
East Africa ◽  
New Records ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Equatorial Guinea ◽  
Distribution Maps ◽  
Annotated List ◽  
Sao Tome And Principe

This paper summarizes current knowledge about Central African pholcids. Central Africa is here defined as the area between 10°N and 7°S and between 6°E and 18°E, including mainly the Lower Guinean subregion of the Guineo-Congolian center of endemism. This includes all of Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, most of Cameroon and Congo Republic, and parts of the neighboring countries. An annotated list of the 14 genera and 79 species recorded from this area is given, together with distribution maps and an identification key to genera. Seven species are newly described: Anansus kamwai sp. nov., Leptopholcus gabonicus sp. nov., Ninetis faro sp. nov., Pholcus punu sp. nov., P. rawiriae sp. nov., Spermophora abibae sp. nov., and S. awalai sp. nov. Additional new records are given for 16 previously described species, including 17 new country records. Distribution and diversity patterns are compared with data on West and East Africa. While West Africa contains a similar set of genera it is significantly less diverse than Central Africa. East Africa is taxonomically more distinct. It has similar levels of diversity as Central Africa, but appears to be less undersampled.

scholarly journals The Lipodystrophy Syndrome in HIV-Infected Children under Antiretroviral Therapy: A First Report from the Central Africa

2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-6
Author(s):  
Honoré Kalombayi Tshamala ◽  
Loukia Aketi ◽  
Pierre Manianga Tshibassu ◽  
Mathilde Bothale Ekila ◽  
Eric Musalu Mafuta ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Antiretroviral Therapy ◽  
Lactic Acidosis ◽  
Metabolic Disorders ◽  
Democratic Republic Of Congo ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Pediatric Hiv ◽  
African Countries ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Group 3 ◽  
Group 1

Background. Despite the high prevalence of the HIV/AIDS, few studies focused on the prevalence of lipodystrophy in pediatric HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ARV) in sub-Saharan African countries. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and to identify the risk factors of metabolic disorders related to ARV therapy in this population. Methods. A cross-sectional study was completed in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo. HIV-infected children aged between six and 18 years on ARV were consecutively recruited. For each case, two control children (one non-HIV infected child and one HIV-infected antiretroviral therapy-naïve child) were also recruited. Results. 80 HIV-infected on ARV therapy children (group 1), 80 noninfected children (group 2) and 65 HIV-infected antiretroviral therapy-naïve children (group 3) were recruited. The frequency of lipoatrophy was not statistically different between group 1 (16.3%) and group 3 (21.5%). A significantly higher proportion of lipohypertrophy, hypercholesterolemia, and lactic acidosis was noted in children of group 1, compared to the controls (p<0.05). Mixed form was rarely observed in this series. The frequency of hypertriglyceridemia was not different between the 3 groups (p>0.05). Conclusion. Lipohypertrophy, hypercholesterolemia, and lactic acidosis emerge as a frequent metabolic disorders due to ARV therapy.

Provisional checklist of the Tettigonioidea (Insecta: Orthoptera) from São Tomé & Príncipe with taxonomic remarks, bioacoustical data and the description of new taxa

Zootaxa ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 4563 (1) ◽  
pp. 41 ◽  
Author(s):  
KLAUS-GERHARD HELLER
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Equatorial Guinea ◽  
Gulf Of Guinea ◽  
Species List ◽  
New Synonyms ◽  
Sao Tome And Principe ◽  
New Synonym ◽  
Oceanic Archipelagos ◽  
The 19Th Century

The state São Tomé and Príncipe consists of two separated oceanic archipelagos situated in the Gulf of Guinea (West Central Africa). Except of a first survey on São Tomé in the 19th century, its Orthoptera fauna has never been studied systematically. Here a list of all tettigonioid species which have been recorded from the islands is presented together with information about the bioacoustics and biology of some species. Each archipelago harbours nine species, but only two species are found in both parts of the country. Two species and one subgenus are described as new: Adapantus (Adapantus) excavatus sp. nov., Brachyamytta bombomensis sp. nov., Neoadapantus subg. nov. The following nomenclatural changes had to be done: Corycoides greeffi (Krauss, 1890) becomes new synonym of Corycoides paradoxus (Bolivar, 1890), Xiphidion guineensis Redtenbacher, 1891, Xiphidion africanum Redtenbacher, 1891 and Conocephalus inequalis Uvarov, 1928 become new synonyms of Conocephalus iris Serville, 1838. The species list of Conocephalus, subgenus Conocephalus, is revised. Additionally the known tettigonioids of Annobón (Equatorial Guinea) are listed (4 species). 

Breakfast Skipping Is an Independent Predictor of Obesity but not Overweight Among Children in a Southeastern European Population

2016 ◽  
Vol 86 (5-6) ◽  
pp. 242-248 ◽  
Author(s):  
Genc Burazeri ◽  
Jolanda Hyska ◽  
Iris Mone ◽  
Enver Roshi
Keyword(s):  
Task Force ◽  
Demographic Data ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
European Population ◽  
Overweight And Obesity ◽  
World Health ◽  
Communist Country ◽  
Western Balkans ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Breakfast Skipping

Abstract.Aim: To assess the association of breakfast skipping with overweight and obesity among children in Albania, a post-communist country in the Western Balkans, which is undergoing a long and difficult political and socioeconomic transition towards a market-oriented economy. Methods: A nationwide cross-sectional study was carried out in Albania in 2013 including a representative sample of 5810 children aged 7.0 – 9.9 years (49.5% girls aged 8.4 ± 0.6 years and 51.5% boys aged 8.5 ± 0.6 years; overall response rate: 97%). Children were measured for height and weight, and body mass index (BMI) calculated. Cut-off BMI values of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) were used to define overweight and obesity in children. Demographic data were also collected. Results: Upon adjustment for age, sex, and place of residence, breakfast skipping was positively related to obesity (WHO criteria: OR = 1.5, 95% CI = 1.3–1.9; IOTF criteria: OR = 1.9, 95% CI = 1.4–2.5), but not overweight (OR = 1.1, 95% CI = 0.9–1.3 and OR = 1.1, 95% CI = 0.9–1.4, respectively). Furthermore, breakfast skipping was associated with a higher BMI (multivariable-adjusted OR = 1.05, 95% CI = 1.02–1.07). Conclusions: Our findings point to a strong and consistent positive relationship between breakfast skipping and obesity, but not overweight, among children in this transitional southeastern European population. Future studies in Albania and other transitional settings should prospectively examine the causal role of breakfast skipping in the development of overweight and obesity.

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