The Role of Self-Awareness and Problem-Solving Orientation for the Instrumentality of Goal-Related Means

Successful goal striving hinges on the selection of instrumental means. The current research investigates individual differences in self-awareness as a predictor for means instrumentality. This effect should be mediated by the tendency of self-aware individuals to approach the process of goal pursuit in a way that is problem-solving-oriented. Four studies ( N1a = 123, N1b = 169, N2 = 353, N3 = 118) were conducted to explore the positive relation between self-awareness and means instrumentality via heightened levels of problem-solving orientation. Studies 1a and 1b found cross-sectional support for the relation between dispositional self-awareness and problem-solving orientation. Study 2 (preregistered) replicated this finding and provided experimental evidence for the hypothesized mediation model. Finally, Study 3 found longitudinal support that dispositional self-awareness and problem-solving orientation predict self-reported means instrumentality and, beyond this, participants’ objective exam grades. This research emphasizes the crucial role of individual differences in self-awareness for an important self-regulatory process, that is, the selection of instrumental means in personal goal pursuit.

Age-Related Differences in Motivation of Recreational Runners, Marathoners, and Ultra-Marathoners

Aim: This study was aimed to investigate the influence of age on the motivations of various types of runners, namely, marathoners, ultra-marathoners, and non-starters.Methods: A total of 1,537 runners including 380 women (24.7%) and 1,157 men (75.3%) took part in the diagnostic survey and completed the motivations of marathoners’ scales questionnaire (MOMS). The effect sizes were estimated.Results: The article presents several statistically significant differences in the impact of age on the motivations of runners in different categories and compares the motivations of marathon runners, ultramarathon runners, and non-starters. The results show that young non-starters decide to run for personal goal achievement, and for both marathon and ultramarathon runners, recognition and competition are important. However, for older people in all groups (non-starters, marathoners, and ultramarathoners), personal goal achievement is of the least importance. Among the oldest runners, the most important motives were self-esteem for non-starters and health orientation for marathoners and ultramarathoners.

Dopamine biases sensitivity to personal goals and social influence in self-control over everyday desires

People regularly give in to daily temptations in spite of conflict with personal goals. To test hypotheses about neuropharmacological influences on self-control, we used positron emission tomography to measure dopamine D2-like receptors (D2R) and experience sampling surveys to naturalistically track daily desires outside the laboratory in everyday life in a sample of 103 adults. Higher D2R availability in the ventral striatum was associated with increased sensitivity to personal goal conflict but not desire strength in deciding whether to attempt to resist a desire. The influence of D2Rs on sensitivity to personal goal conflict depended on whether desires were experienced in a social context. D2R availability in the midbrain (but not the ventral striatum) influenced whether desires were enacted. These findings provide unique evidence that the dopamine system influences decision making and regulatory behavior and provides new insights into how these mechanisms interact with personal goals and social contexts.

Sorry, Not Sorry: Effects of Different Types of Apologies and Self-Monitoring on Non-verbal Behaviors

This study examines the effects of different types of apologies and individual differences in self-monitoring on non-verbal apology behaviors involving a server apologizing to a customer. Apologies divide into sincere apologies that reflect genuine recognition of fault, and instrumental apologies, made for achieving a personal goal such as avoiding punishment or rejection by others. Self-monitoring (public-performing and other-directedness) were also examined. Fifty-three female undergraduate students participated in the experiment. Participants were assigned randomly to either a sincere apology condition or an instrumental apology condition. They watched the film clip of the communication between a customer and server and then role-played how they would apologize if they were the server. Participants’ non-verbal behavior during the role-play was videotaped. The results showed an interaction between the apology condition and self-monitoring on non-verbal behaviors. When public-performing was low, gaze avoidance was more likely to occur with a sincere apology than an instrumental apology. There was no difference when the public-performing was high. Facial displays of apology were apparent in the instrumental apology compared to the sincere apology. This tendency became more conspicuous with increased public-performing. Our results indicated that the higher the public-performing, the more participants tried to convey the feeling of apology by combining a direct gaze and facial displays in an instrumental apology. On the other hand, results suggest that lower levels of public-performing elicited less immediacy in offering a sincere apology. Further studies are needed to determine whether these results apply to other conflict resolution situations.

Feedback to Minimize Household Waste a Field Experiment in The Netherlands

Households can reduce environmental problems by minimizing their waste. Studies suggest that feedback may promote waste minimization. We propose that the effectiveness of feedback depends on the standard to which the feedback is compared. We tested the effect of feedback on waste minimization compared to a personal goal (goal comparison feedback), the behaviour of others (social comparison feedback), or one’s past behaviour (historical comparison feedback). Furthermore, the underlying process explaining the effect of feedback on behaviour is yet unclear. We tested the influence of feedback on environmental self-identity, self-efficacy, and descriptive social norms to minimize waste. We conducted a field study in the Netherlands. Households received feedback during six months on the number of residual waste bags they produce. The results show that all intervention groups reduced their number of waste bags including the control group that only received information on how to reduce waste. Yet, a comparison neighbourhood did not reduce their actual waste during the same time period. We did not find clear differences between the different feedback comparison standards. Furthermore, the feedback did not influence any of the process variables. We found that environmental self-identity was most consistently related to self-reported waste behaviours.

Successful negotiation of goal conflict between romantic partners predicts better goal outcomes during COVID-19: A mixed methods study

When romantic partners’ personal goals conflict, this can negatively affect personal goal outcomes, such as progress. In a concurrent mixed methods study, we investigated whether goal conflict and negation of goal conflict were associated with goal outcomes (progress, confidence, motivation) and what strategies partners used during the COVID-19 pandemic to negotiate goal conflict. Survey participants ( n = 200) completed a daily diary for a week and weekly longitudinal reports for a month and interview participants ( n = 48) attended a semi-structured interview. Results showed that higher goal conflict was associated with lower goal outcomes, and successful negotiation of goal conflict was associated with better goal outcomes. Qualitative analyses identified three goal conflict negotiation strategies (compromise, integration, concession). Conversations focused on both practical and emotional needs and included respectful communication and space from conflict (timeout or avoidance). The mixed methods results suggest that goal conflict was low during the pandemic and participants were often able to negotiate goal conflict resulting in better goal outcomes.

The Psychology behind Knowledge Hiding in an Organization

This study aimed to understand the psychological process behind employees’ knowledge hiding (KH) behaviors in organizations. KH is an intentional act of concealing knowledge when it is requested by a colleague and can lead to counterproductive consequences for the organization. Therefore, this study synthesized previous studies (n = 88) on KH through a systematic literature review. We used the cognitive–motivational–relational (CMR) theory of emotion to create a framework for the studies’ findings. Based on the framework, the psychological process behind KH has two stages—personal goal generation and the knowledge-request event appraisal process, each of which contains its own CMR process. In the first stage, an individual’s internal and external attributes related to the organization shape their personal goals. In the second stage, an individual appraises the features of a knowledge-request event in terms of both their personal goal and the internal and external attributes that created the goal. If the knowledge request is appraised as harmful for the personal goal, emotion arises and leads to the manifestation of KH. This study contributes to the knowledge management literature as, to our knowledge, it is the first to propose a CMR theory-based framework to understand the overall psychological process behind KH.

How Are Sports-Trackers Used by Runners? Running-Related Data, Personal Goals, and Self-Tracking in Running

The purpose of this research is to explore the roles that sports trackers and running-related data play in runners’ personal goal achievement. A two-week diary study and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 runners to explore how runners engage with their running-related data to set and achieve their running goals. We found that participants pursued and transitioned between different running goals as their needs, abilities, and surrounding environment changed. We also found multiple motivations that shaped the use of sports trackers. We identified two main categories in runners’ motivations for using trackers and data to achieve their goals. These categories were (i) documenting and tracking in running, and (ii) supporting goal-oriented reflections and actions, with various reasons for use while preparing for and during running. This study provides insights into the psychological effects of running-related data and signals practical implications for runners and developers of tracking technology.

Mindfully motivated: Can a brief session of mindfulness meditation enhance motivation towards personal goals?

Recent research suggests that mindfulness meditation may impair motivation towards traditional laboratory tasks. The present research explored the effects of meditation on motivation towards personal goals and an anagram task. In Study 1 (n = 200), participants in the mindfulness condition reported greater goal motivation than those in a comparison podcast condition (due to a decrease in the podcast condition); this difference remained 10 minutes later. Exploratory analyses revealed no differences between conditions in post-manipulation anagram motivation. In Study 2 (n = 120), participants in the mindfulness condition reported greater goal motivation than those in the podcast condition; this difference remained 20 minutes later. There were no differences between conditions in anagram motivation. Furthermore, goal motivation increased from before to after meditating, whereas anagram motivation remained the same. These findings oppose the notion that meditation impairs motivation and instead suggest that meditation may offer motivational benefits for personal goal pursuit.

Personal Metaphors as Motivational Resources: Boosting Anticipated Incentives and Feelings of Vitality Through a Personal Motto-Goal

Motto-goals describe a desired mind-set and provide a person with a guiding principle of how to approach a personal goal or obligation (e.g., with the inner strength of a bear I am forging ahead). We propose that motto-goals can be conceptionalized as individually created metaphors and that the figurative, metaphorical language and the characteristics of the formation process make them effective in changing the perception of unpleasant personal obligations as more inherently enjoyable and raise vitality levels. To test whether a newly devised minimalistic motto-goal intervention can make goal striving more attractive (stronger anticipation of activity related incentives) and energize goal-oriented action (increase vitality) in relation to an unpleasant obligation, two experimental studies were conducted. In Study 1 the motto-goal condition led to stronger anticipation of activity related incentives and vitality compared to a distraction task. The effect on vitality was partially mediated by a change in feelings of autonomy. Study 2 replicated the effects compared to a placebo intervention and further found motto-goals to be specifically effective in increasing the anticipation of activity related incentives as opposed to outcome related incentives. The results support that applying motto-goals built with a newly developed minimalist motto-goal intervention can influence the subjective experience of individuals faced with a previously unpleasant obligation.