A COMPARATIVE EXAMINATION OF LANGUAGE ECOLOGY AND LANGUAGE POLICY IN POST-SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA

In the late Soviet era, the domains of use of languages were largely a function of ethnic groups’ status in the Soviet administrative hierarchy. Russian was at the top; below it were the eponymous languages of the non-Russian 14 “Union Republics;” all other languages were used in relatively narrow sets of domains. The “Union Republic languages” included five in Central Asia-- Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Turkmen, and Uzbek. These languages’ use in fewer domains than most other Union Republic languages profoundly affected their expansion into new domains after 1991. Two other factors affecting this primarily rooted in the Soviet era were the ethnic composition of the republics upon the USSR’s collapse and their populations’ language repertoires. In addition to these “Soviet heritage factors,” language policy and ecology have also been shaped by each country’s nation building project, its international orientation, the nature of its political system, and its economic resources. Russian today remains more widely used in high prestige domains in Central Asia than in all other former Soviet republics except Belarus. However, Russian is less used in a wide variety of domains in Central Asia than it is in “autonomous” units of the former RSFSR.

Three varieties of Authoritarian Neoliberalism: Rule by the experts, the people, the leader

Neoliberalism and authoritarianism are intimately connected, as is demonstrated by the existence of a growing body of literature on ‘authoritarian neoliberalism’. This article provides a taxonomy of authoritarian neoliberalism and claims that it appears in three varieties – technocracy, populist nationalism, and traditional authoritarianism. Also, it proposes both an overview of the varieties and an analysis of three states as case studies. States are investigated as actors which strongly contribute to the neoliberal project amidst a more complex process of multilocalized and variegated neoliberalizations, which have to be incorporated into the comparative research. First, Italy is studied as a consolidated Western democracy which has been often governed by technocrats, independent, non-party professionals who have recurrently been in power since the 1990s, and within the frame of an increasingly technocratic European Union. Second, the paper concentrates on Hungary, a semi-peripheral Central European country which has become an epitome of a populist nationalism with increasingly authoritarian traits. Third, the paper focuses on Kazakhstan, a former Soviet Union republic with no significant experience of liberal democracy before independence, and a key example of the ‘traditional authoritarian’ variety. The three varieties, however, are sometimes combined and coexisting, and their evolution will be decisive for the future of capitalism and liberal democracy.

Zigzags in Cultural Policy of the Soviet Union in the Cold War Epoch

Presented article has been written based on the report, which was delivered at the International Workshop “The Cultural and Academic Relations between the Eastern Bloc Countries and the West during the Cold War Period” organized by the Ohara Institute for Social Research/Hosei University (Tokyo, Japan) in cooperation with the State Institution “Institute of World History of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine” (Kyiv, Ukraine) and Jagielonian University (Krakow, Poland).In order for reading this article to be more accessible for the scholars of post-Soviet countries, far and near abroad, the author, on exceptional basis, used Russian as the language of her research. Because exactly Russian was the language of learning of the author’s Japanese colleagues, professors from the Hosei University / Tokyo and other universities during their studying in the USSR in the Cold War years.The article underlines that accession of Ukraine to the Soviet Union as the Union Republic-co-founder and its commitment to the establishment of the new social and economic system involved a series of public transformations. In the Soviet Union, the industrialization, collectivization, and cultural revolution were conducted, numerous universities, scientific institutions, theatres, and other culture centers were opened. Soviet culture, as officially defined, served the purpose of construction of a socialist society. At the same time, the cultural policy of the Soviet Union had not only the objectives of changing public consciousness, covered the principles of liquidation of private property and repudiation of religion, but also, on the base of communist ideology, it was intended to provide a formation of the «New Soviet Man». The author demonstrated the Cold War influence on the culture of the USSR. The research highlighted that the development of new industries and scientific discoveries of global significance by the Soviet scientists enabled to use to a greater extent of human achievements for further progress and cultural wealth accumulation. The article deals with the achievements and loses in the process of Ukrainian national identity assertion.

Administrative Justice in the Soviet Period: An Analysis of the Theory, Legislation and Practice of the Second Half of the 20th Century

In the Soviet theory, the complex and confusing path that administrative justice overcame in its formation is conditionally divided into four stages. Based on the periodization identified by Soviet scientists (A.V. Absalyamov, V. I. Piunova, and D. M. Chechot) the authors conclude that the institute under consideration was more or less developed in 1961-1993. The administrative justice of the second half of the 20th century has a relatively high quality characteristic, because, first, at the fourth stage of the Soviet period, the right to judicial appeal was assigned to a wider range of persons and was provided for in the most important spheres of society. Second, with the adoption in 1961 of The Foundations of the civil procedure in the USSR and Union republics disputes between the bodies of Soviet power and citizens were separated from other cases and formed a separate category. These two circumstances determined the choice of the research topic.The authors analyze the normative legal acts adopted in the post-war years, which regulated public-legal relations. Familiarization with the theory of the Soviet administrative justice and the practice of its application in the second half of the 20th century is of interest to the former Union Republic, namely the Kazakh SSR. The paper describes the Soviet way of development and improvement of the institute of administrative justice in the period from the end of the Great Patriotic War to the beginning of the collapse of the Soviet Union. The purpose of the work is to study the public legal relations that arose between Soviet citizens and the Soviet state in the person of its bodies and institutions, as well as officials and employees.

Derusification of Administration in USSR

Non-Russian peoples were represented in Russian power structures long before the revolutions of 1905 and 1917, but less than the democratic norm, which suggests de facto ethnic discrimination in the Empire. In Soviet times, the actual ethno-political inequality of peoples in the USSR was gradually overcome, and participation of non-Russians in power structures grew systematically and even accelerated, and the role of Russians decreased accordingly. The increase in non-Russians’ share in governmental bodies was almost exclusively due to an increase in their ethnic status. By 1979, Russians had a very small majority in all government structures in the USSR as a whole, except for the legislative branch, which roughly corresponded to their higher share in the country’s population (50.8 % in 1989). However, the situation was different in the Union republics. Only in the Russian Federation did all peoples, Russian and non-Russian, participate in governmental bodies in proportion to their numbers and in full compliance with the democratic norm. In Belarus, Moldova, and Uzbekistan, titular ethnic groups were underrepresented, and Russians were overrepresented. In Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Estonia, the representation of Russians was below the democratic norm, and in nine republics it was higher, but despite this, they did not have a majority in any union republic. This situation developed as a result of the center’s national policy, which aimed at strengthening the authorities with national personnel, accelerating the modernization of the Union republics and raising the level of development in the lagging republics to the level of the most developed republics.

A RESOURCE MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FINNO-UGRIC REGION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: THE BASIS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OR THE PATH TO A DEAD END? (ON EXAMPLE OF THE REPUBLIC OF KARELIA)

Today in Russia there is a search for a new model of socio-economic development that could replace the raw material economy. The search problem is complicated by the fact that raw materials continue to be considered as the main resource in trade with other countries. Effective use of all types of resources that our country possesses could become an alternative in this situation. Studying the historical experience of using the resource model of socio-economic development may become one of the grounds for developing an optimal model for further socio-economic development of many Russian regions. This is especially true for regions that have historically developed and developed as mono-industry. The basis of the socio-economic development of Karelia, especially in the twentieth century, was the development of the timber industry sectors. This feature was supplemented by the fact that in the period from 1940 to 1956. Karelia as a Finno-Ugric region had the status of a union republic. The combination of these two factors became the basis of the accelerated socio-economic development of the republic in the first post-war years. The basis of the socio-economic development of Karelia as a Finno-Ugric region, especially in the 20th century, was the development of the timber industry sectors. As part of the interaction between the Center and the region, resources were exchanged. Receiving Karelian wood, the state provided the republic with financial and human resources, contributed to the formation and development of production and social infrastructure. As the main resource of Karelia, the forest in which the state was originally interested, was gradually exhausted, the resource potential of the region gradually decreased in various ways compared to other regions of the Northwest of Russia.

THE MANIFESTATION OF THE RECHTSIDEE OF PANCASILA IN REGULATING THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS IN INDONESIA

Pancasila is the ideal of the state (staatsidee). It also serves as legal ideal (rechtsidee), fundamental of philosophy (philosofische grondslag), fundamental state norm (staatsfundamentalnorm), and view of life (weltanschauung). It is a flexible ideology that can be drawn, pressed, and broaden to cover almost all circumstances. The perspective and mindset forming the constitution concerning human rights, and citizen constitutional rights had changed due to the changes in worldview attitudes, internationalism, and cosmopolitanism about human and constitutional rights. The constitution in Indonesia had changed several times. However, the provision of the civil rights in the Indonesian constitutions or known as constitutional rights were not eliminated in the 1945 Constitution (since august 18th 1945), the 1949 Union Republic of Indonesia Constitution, the 1950 Temporary Constitution, the 1945 constitution (after the President Decree in July 5th,1959) and 1945 constitution after amendment. Pancasila, also known as five principles, has the function as the bedrock of Indonesia. However, as a philosophical principle, Pancasila can interpret in myriad perspective, potentially used for multiple purposes. Abstrak: Pancasila sebagai cita negara (staatsidee). Pancasila yang juga berfungsi sebagai cita hukum (rechtsidee), dasar filsafat (philosofische grondslag), norma fundamental negara (staatsfundamentalnorm), dan pandangan hidup (weltanschauung). Pancasila adalah ideologi yang bersifat fleksibel yang dapat ditarik, ditekan, dan dilebarkan untuk mencakup hampir semua keadaan. Cara pandang dan pola pikir pembentuk Undang-Undang Dasar (UUD) terhadap Hak Asasi Manusia, konstitusi, dan hak-hak konstitusional warga negara mengalami perubahan yang diakibatkan oleh perubahan sikap-sikap pandangan dunia, internasionalisme dan kosmopolitanisme tentang HAM dan hak konstitusional. Konstitusi di Indonesia telah mengalami beberapa kali perubahan, namun ketentuan-ketentuan tentang hak-hak warga negara dalam konstitusi-konstitusi Indonesia atau yang lebih dikenal dengan hak konstitusional tidak pernah hilang, baik dalam UUD 1945 yang berlaku mulai 18 Agustus 1945, Konstitusi RIS 1949, UUDS 1950, UUD 1945 setelah Dekrit Presiden tanggal 5 Juli 1959, dan UUD 1945 setelah Perubahan. Pancasila, yang juga dikenal sebagai lima prinsip, berfungsi sebagai landasan negara Indonesia. Namun, sebagai prinsip filosofis, pancasila dapat ditafsikan ke berbagai perspektif yang dapat digunakan untuk berbagai tujuan. Kata Kunci: Cita Hukum (Rechtsidee), Pancasila, Hak Konstitusional

Finances of Soviet Latvia on the Eve of and during the Great Patriotic War: Materials from the Russian State Archive of Economy

The article provides an overview of documents of the Russian State Archive of Economy (RGAE), which reflect the dynamics of financial support for all aspects of life in the Latvian SSR from August 1940 to May 1945. These documents are stored in series 25–30 of fond 7733 “Ministry of Finance of the USSR. 1917-1991” and have not yet been studied by researchers. Series 25 and 26 contain rich data on financing of various branches of the Latvian economy, including those not developed in Latvia previously. The peculiarity of currency circulation in late 1940 ? early 1941 is described. There were two currencies in circulation in the Republic at the time: the lats and the rubles. The documents show that the central government policy did not seek to destroy private farms. On the contrary, the authorities provided Latvian peasants with loans on favorable terms to help the population to adapt to Soviet life. The documents inform that 50 machine-tractor stations were built in Soviet Latvia in a short period of time. These stations were exempt from taxes. Series 26 contains documents that provide data on plans for financing the social sphere in Latvia in 1941 to the extent of 50.8% of all expenses. This figure was significantly higher than in any other union republic. In the RGAE there are unique documents on the financing of Soviet Latvia during the Great Patriotic War. There are cost estimates that allow to study state expenditures on the functioning of the Soviet Latvian government in the period from 1942 to 1943. In series 29 and 30, there is much information on the transfer of funds for the restoration of the destroyed economy and social sphere of the Latvian SSR and on the priorities of financial security. In addition to the restoration of enterprises, institutions, and housing, significant funds were transferred to the implementation of new social projects: construction of higher educational institutions, technical schools, schools, libraries, museums, theaters, and cinemas.