Tyrania cicha i zawoalowana według traktatu „De tyranno” Bartolusa de Saxoferrato

The paper is devoted to the tacit and veiled tyranny, a concept developed by Bartolus de Saxoferrato in his treatise On the Tyrant (De tyranno), widely regarded as an outstanding representative of the commentator school. In addition to his strictly legal work, which consists of commentaries on individual parts of the Corpus iuris civilis, he is also the author of political and legal treatises, dealing with important topics for the inhabitants of late medieval Italy. In the treatise, he decided to discuss in detail the theme of tyranny from the perspective of a jurist interested in solving the concrete problems that tyrant rule could cause in practice. He developed ways to classify rule as tyrannical, defining and outlining its various types, so that once a tyrant is removed from power, its legal consequences can be examined, including whether legal acts committed during tyranny are valid. The aim of this article is to analyse the tacit and disguised tyranny presented in the treatise De tyranno, to identify its essential characteristics and point out the features that distinguish it from manifest tyranny. The analysis covers the types of tyranny, the ways of hiding a tyrant, threats to rights and freedoms in the case of hidden tyranny, methods of exposing the hidden tyrant, ways of eliminating tyranny, and the validity of actions performed during tyranny. The examination of these aspects is intended not only to allow an understanding of Bartolus’ conception, but also to provide an answer to the question of the purpose singling out this form of tyranny serves. A veiled tyrant is one who rules a community against the law, hiding this fact behind some sort of veil. As a legal category, the distinction between tyranny ex defectu tituli and ex parte exercitii is fundamental. The distinction between a manifest and hidden tyrant does not have such far-reaching consequences. Tacit and veiled tyranny are sometimes treated as transitional categories. On many points, the comments applicable to manifest tyrants also apply to veiled tyrants. The purpose of distinguishing this category is to make the problem clearer — to state that a tyrant is also someone who seemingly has nothing to do with power or has little authority. Bartolus undertook to define and characterise this form of tyranny, indicating the legal instruments that could be used to deal with the undesirable political phenomenon as long as it had not yet assumed its mature form. The jurist considered it expedient to distinguish the category of a hidden tyrant so that they could be identified and held accountable under the law, although they did not formally possess any power or had very little of it, as a usurper or as one guilty of harming citizens.

The Molecular Forms of GDF9 In A Range of Mammalian Species

<p>Growth Differentiation Factor (GDF) 9 is a member of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily that is exclusively expressed within and secreted from, the oocyte. This protein has generated much interest as it has been found to play a major role in follicular growth and maturation in mammals, and may be involved in determining litter size. Like most TGFβ family members, it is synthesised as a pre-pro-mature protein and is cleaved at various stages to allow the biologically active mature form to bind its Type II receptor. The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of the different molecular forms of GDF9 that are present within ovarian follicles of a range of mammalian species that differ in litter size. To achieve this aim, Western blotting experiments were performed to illustrate the molecular forms that were present within, and secreted from, the oocytes of rats, pigs, sheep and red deer. The detection of bands that represented the different molecular forms of GDF9 was undertaken using a monoclonal antibody that targeted a conserved region in the mature form of ovine GDF9. The predominant forms of GDF9 found within and secreted from the oocyte across the species were the promature and cleaved mature forms of GDF9. Densitometry analysis of the Western blots revealed that pig, sheep, and red deer had significantly more of the promature, than the mature, form within the oocyte. Conversely, there were no significant differences between the levels of promature and mature forms of GDF9 in the secreted media. Moreover, the levels of the specific molecular forms of GDF9 were not different between pigs, sheep and red deer. The levels of GDF9 in rat samples were low which may be due to a lower affinity of the monoclonal GDF9 antibody due to sequence differences between rat and ovine GDF9. Interestingly, applying a crosslinking reagent to the oocyte lysate and conditioned media samples revealed the appearance of a high molecular size band. The appearance of this band, which was more prominent in the rat and pig, was concomitant with the disappearance of the mature GDF9 band. The differential levels of these presumptive GDF9 multimers in these two species that have large litters may suggest that rat and pig mature GDF9 binds other oocyte secreted factors more readily than GDF9 from mono-ovulatory species. Importantly, no homo- or hetero- mature dimers of GDF9 were detected in any of the species studied. In summary, GDF9 was predominantly present as promature and cleaved mature forms both within the oocyte and in the secretions from the oocyte. Overall, these results indicated that the promature form was present in higher levels than the cleaved mature form. With the exception of the rat, there were no detectable species differences in the levels of the GDF9 forms within or secreted from the oocyte using Western blotting methodologies.</p>

The Molecular Forms of GDF9 In A Range of Mammalian Species

<p>Growth Differentiation Factor (GDF) 9 is a member of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily that is exclusively expressed within and secreted from, the oocyte. This protein has generated much interest as it has been found to play a major role in follicular growth and maturation in mammals, and may be involved in determining litter size. Like most TGFβ family members, it is synthesised as a pre-pro-mature protein and is cleaved at various stages to allow the biologically active mature form to bind its Type II receptor. The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of the different molecular forms of GDF9 that are present within ovarian follicles of a range of mammalian species that differ in litter size. To achieve this aim, Western blotting experiments were performed to illustrate the molecular forms that were present within, and secreted from, the oocytes of rats, pigs, sheep and red deer. The detection of bands that represented the different molecular forms of GDF9 was undertaken using a monoclonal antibody that targeted a conserved region in the mature form of ovine GDF9. The predominant forms of GDF9 found within and secreted from the oocyte across the species were the promature and cleaved mature forms of GDF9. Densitometry analysis of the Western blots revealed that pig, sheep, and red deer had significantly more of the promature, than the mature, form within the oocyte. Conversely, there were no significant differences between the levels of promature and mature forms of GDF9 in the secreted media. Moreover, the levels of the specific molecular forms of GDF9 were not different between pigs, sheep and red deer. The levels of GDF9 in rat samples were low which may be due to a lower affinity of the monoclonal GDF9 antibody due to sequence differences between rat and ovine GDF9. Interestingly, applying a crosslinking reagent to the oocyte lysate and conditioned media samples revealed the appearance of a high molecular size band. The appearance of this band, which was more prominent in the rat and pig, was concomitant with the disappearance of the mature GDF9 band. The differential levels of these presumptive GDF9 multimers in these two species that have large litters may suggest that rat and pig mature GDF9 binds other oocyte secreted factors more readily than GDF9 from mono-ovulatory species. Importantly, no homo- or hetero- mature dimers of GDF9 were detected in any of the species studied. In summary, GDF9 was predominantly present as promature and cleaved mature forms both within the oocyte and in the secretions from the oocyte. Overall, these results indicated that the promature form was present in higher levels than the cleaved mature form. With the exception of the rat, there were no detectable species differences in the levels of the GDF9 forms within or secreted from the oocyte using Western blotting methodologies.</p>

The transition from the female-like great calls to male calls during ontogeny in southern yellow-cheeked gibbon males (Nomascus gabriellae)

It is well known that gibbons emit a pattern of vocalizations, which is specific for species and sex. A previous study showed, however, that immature southern yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae) males produce only female-like great calls from 2.3 to 5.3 years of age in co-singing interactions with their mothers. To date, nothing is known about how the vocal repertoire of a male changes from the female-like call (great call) to the male call (staccato notes and multi-modulation phrase) during vocal ontogeny. The goal of this study was to describe the transition from the female-like great call to the male call and the ontogeny of the male call. We predicted that the transition from the female-like great call to the male-specific call and the development of the male call is a normal part of the aging proces. If this is the case, the following phenomena will occur: (a) female vocalization should no longer be produced with the mature form of the multi-modulation phrase and (b) all stages of the male vocalization should occur gradually as the young male ages. Young males regularly emit both female-like great calls and male-specific calls between the ages of 5.6 to 7.1 years. Once the young males reached 7.1 years of age, they emitted male calls exclusively, and they continued to do so until the end of the observation period (at 8.11 years of age). It was confirmed that the young males emitted only female-like great calls during periods when they produced non-mature forms of a multi-modulation phrase (Fm0,1—none or one frequency modulation in second notes). Furhermore, the decrease in the number of female-like great calls was attributed to the development of the mature form of the multi-modulation phrase (Fm2—two or more frequency modulation in second notes), which developed with age. We also confirmed that the multi-modulation phrase developed gradually, while the development of the staccato notes occurred in leaps. A multi-modulation phrase developed as the initial part of the male-specific call. It was evolved from a simpler to a more complex form as the maximum frequency and age of the young males increased. Staccato notes subsequently developed in certain young males. Possible explanations for such vocal ontogeny in young males are discussed in this work.

Sedentary Conditions Promote Subregionally Specific Changes in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in the Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla

A sedentary lifestyle is the top preventable cause of death and accounts for substantial socioeconomic costs to society. The rostral ventrolateral medulla regulates blood pressure under normal and pathophysiological states, and demonstrates inactivity-related structural and functional neuroplasticity, which is subregionally specific. The purpose of this study was to examine pro- and mature forms of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and their respective receptors in the male rat rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and its rostral extension following sedentary vs. active (running wheels) conditions (10–12weeks). We used subregionally specific Western blotting to determine that the mature form of BDNF and its ratio to its pro-form were lower in more caudal subregions of the rostral ventrolateral medulla of sedentary rats but higher in the rostral extension when both were compared to active rats. The full-length form of the tropomyosin receptor kinase B receptor and the non-glycosylated form of the 75 kilodalton neurotrophin receptor were lower in sedentary compared to active rats. The rostrocaudal patterns of expression of the mature form of BDNF and the full-length form of the tropomyosin receptor kinase B receptor were remarkably similar to the subregionally specific patterns of enhanced dendritic branching, neuronal activity, and glutamate-mediated increases in sympathetic nerve activity observed in previous studies performed in sedentary rats. Our studies suggest signaling pathways related to BDNF within subregions of both the rostral ventrolateral medulla and its rostral extension contribute to cardiovascular disease and premature death related to a sedentary lifestyle.

Inhibition of striatal SEZ6 by miR-3594-5p is a drug-specific marker for late-stage heroin intake escalation

Escalation of drug use is a hallmark stage in the transition to addiction and uncovering its underlying brain molecular mechanisms constitutes a considerable challenge. Here, we report in rats with extended access to heroin for self-administration that miR-3594-5p was upregulated in the dorsal striatum at late, but not early, stages during escalation when excessive heroin intake plateaued. Striatal miR-3594-5p bound directly to the 3′UTR region of Sez6 transcript and inhibited its expression, thereby decreasing the mature form of the translated SEZ6 protein. This miR-3594-5p/Sez6 interaction was specific to heroin, as it was not observed with cocaine, and correlated with the severity of heroin intake escalation. Our findings reveal that miRNA alterations during escalation of drug self-administration are spatially and temporally regulated and drug-specific.

Disputes over the place of ethics in Polish Marxist philosophy

In the article, the author presents attempts by Polish Marxist philosophers to enrich Marxism with ethical issues. The initial absence of ethics in Marxism is associated with the ignorance of tradition related to their own formation. In the author’s opinion, only polemics with the competitive Lviv-Warsaw school forced Polish Marxists to take the issue seriously. That is why Polish Marxist ethics in its mature form was only established in the 1960s, and did not enrich Marxism itself, but rather indirectly contributed to the initiation of socio-political transformations in our country.

HELMINTHES OF CATFISH (SILURUS GLANIS L.) IN WATER BODIES OF THE MIDDLE REACHES OF THE SYRDARYA RIVER

Study of the species composition of catfish helminths in water bodies of the middle reaches of the Syrdarya river. The material was collected in 2019–2021 in natural and artificial reservoirs of the middle reaches of the Syrdarya river. We examined 216 specimens of the catfish by methods of complete parasitological dissection proposed by V.A. Dogel (1933), A.P. Markevich (1950) and I.E. Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya (1952). The helminths found were undergone laboratory inspection according to generally accepted methods of I.E. Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya (1952), A.A. Shigin (1986) and O.N. Bauer (1987). As the research results show, the prevalence in catfish was 31.5% with the intensity of invasion 1–70 specimens. 29 species of helminths were recorded in the catfish: 7 species of cestodes, 10 species of trematodes, 9 species of nematodes, and 3 species of proboscis worms, which belong to 27 genera, 19 families, 11 orders and 4 classes. Events of mono- and associative invasions have been reported. From 29 species of helminths found, 17 species were found in the larval form, and 12 species in the sexually mature form. In natural and artificial reservoirs of the Syrdarya region of Uzbekistan, the catfish is infected with 29 species of helminths. The total infection rate in fish is 31.5%. This parameter varies depending on the season of the year

Memorie letterarie nel Convivio di Dante

Focusing on book 4 of Dante’s Convivio (The Banquet), this article analyzes the complexity of the unfinished poetic and philosophical treatise that the poet wrote at the beginning of his exile. The relevance of the Convivio within Dante’s overall production can be attributed to the presence of numerous themes dear to the poet, which sometimes emerge only in nuce and sometimes already in a mature form in the treatise. Nonetheless, Dante took many of these subjects and linguistic experimentations and elaborated on them in his later works. In particular, book 4 functions as a precedent for some of the choices, themes, and styles subsequently developed in the Commedia. However, when the inspiration for the Convivio as a vehicle for both poetic and prose production is supplanted by the larger and even more ambitious project of his Commedia, Dante abandoned the treatise and left its linguistic mission unfinished.