GABAB receptor antagonism from birth to weaning permanently modifies Kiss1 expression in hypothalamus and gonads in mice

Introduction: The kisspeptin gene Kiss1 is expressed in two hypothalamic areas: anteroventral periventricular nucleus/periventricular nucleus (AVPV/PeN) and arcuate nucleus (ARC), and also in gonads. Evidences suggest that gamma-amino butyric acid B receptors (GABAB) signaling can regulate Kiss1 expression. Here we inhibited GABAB signaling from PND2-PND21 and evaluated the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Methods: BALB/c mice were treated on postnatal days 2-21 (PND2-PND21) with CGP55845 (GABAB antagonist), and evaluated in PND21 and adulthood: gene expression (qPCR) in hypothalamus and gonads, hormones by radioimmunoassay, gonad histochemistry (H&E), puberty onset, estrous cycles. Results: At PND21, CGP inhibited Kiss1 and Tac2 and increased Pdyn and Gabbr1 in the ARC of both sexes and decreased Th only in female AVPV/PeN. Serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testis weight decreased in CGP-males and puberty onset was delayed. In adults, Kiss1, Tac2, Pdyn, Pgr, Cyp19a1, Gad1 were downregulated, while Gabbr1 was upregulated in the ARC of both sexes. In the AVPV/PeN, Kiss1, Th, Cyp19a1 and Pgr decreased while Gad1 increased in CGP-females, whereas Cyp19a1 increased in CGP-males. Serum FSH increased in CGP-males while prolactin increased in CGP-females. Testosterone and progesterone increased in ovaries from CGP-females, in which Kiss1, Cyp19a1 and Esr1 were downregulated while Hsd3b2 was upregulated, together with increased atretic and decreased ovulatory follicles. Testes from CGP-males showed decreased progesterone, increased Gabbr1, Kiss1, Kiss1r, Esr2 and decreased Cyp19a1 and clear signs of seminiferous tubules atrophy. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that appropriate GABAB signaling during this critical prepubertal period is necessary for the normal development of the HPG axis.

The Comprehensive Neural Mechanism of Oxytocin in Analgesia

: Oxytocin (OXT) is a nine amino acid neuropeptide hormone that has become one of the most intensively studied molecules in the past few decades. The vast majority of OXT is synthesized in the periventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus, and a few are synthesized in some peripheral organs (such as the uterus, ovaries, adrenal glands, thymus, pancreas, etc.) OXT modulates a series of physiological processes, including lactation, parturition, as well as some social behaviors. In addition, more and more attention has recently been focused on the analgesic effects of oxytocin. It has been reported that OXT can relieve tension and pain without other adverse effects. However, the critical role and detailed mechanism of OXT in analgesia remain unclear. Here, this review aims to summarize the mechanism of OXT in analgesia and some ideas about the mechanism.

Kisspeptin Neurons and Estrogen–Estrogen Receptor α Signaling: Unraveling the Mystery of Steroid Feedback System Regulating Mammalian Reproduction

Estrogen produced by ovarian follicles plays a key role in the central mechanisms controlling reproduction via regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by its negative and positive feedback actions in female mammals. It has been well accepted that estrogen receptor α (ERα) mediates both estrogen feedback actions, but precise targets had remained as a mystery for decades. Ever since the discovery of kisspeptin neurons as afferent ERα-expressing neurons to govern GnRH neurons, the mechanisms mediating estrogen feedback are gradually being unraveled. The present article overviews the role of kisspeptin neurons in the arcuate nucleus (ARC), which are considered to drive pulsatile GnRH/gonadotropin release and folliculogenesis, in mediating the estrogen negative feedback action, and the role of kisspeptin neurons located in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus-periventricular nucleus (AVPV-PeN), which are thought to drive GnRH/luteinizing hormone (LH) surge and consequent ovulation, in mediating the estrogen positive feedback action. This implication has been confirmed by the studies showing that estrogen-bound ERα down- and up-regulates kisspeptin gene (Kiss1) expression in the ARC and AVPV-PeN kisspeptin neurons, respectively. The article also provides the molecular and epigenetic mechanisms regulating Kiss1 expression in kisspeptin neurons by estrogen. Further, afferent ERα-expressing neurons that may regulate kisspeptin release are discussed.

Depleting Hypothalamic Somatostatinergic Neurons Recapitulates Diabetic Phenotypes in Brain, Bone Marrow, Adipose, and Retina

Hypothalamic inflammation and sympathetic nervous system hyperactivity are hallmark features of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Hypothalamic inflammation may aggravate metabolic and immunologic pathologies due to extensive sympathetic activation of peripheral tissues. Loss of somatostatinergic (SST) neurons may contribute to enhanced hypothalamic inflammation. The present data show that leptin receptor deficient (db/db) mice exhibit reduced hypothalamic somatostatinergic cells, particularly in the periventricular nucleus. We model this finding, using adeno-associated virus (AAV) delivery of diphtheria toxin (DTA) driven by an SST-cre system to deplete these cells in SSTcre/gfp mice (SST-DTA). SST-DTA mice exhibit enhanced hypothalamic c-fos expression and brain inflammation as demonstrated by microglial and astrocytic activation. Bone marrow from SST-DTA mice undergoes skewed hematopoiesis, generating excess granulocyte-monocyte precursors and increased pro-inflammatory (CCR2hi) monocytes. Visceral mesenteric adipose tissue from DTA-treated animals was resistant to catecholamine induced lipolysis. Finally, SST-DTA mice exhibited a diabetic retinopathy like phenotype: reduced visual function by optokinetic response and electroretinogram, as well as increased percentages of retinal monocytes. Importantly, hyperglycemia was not observed in SST-DTA mice. Thus, the isolated reduction in hypothalamic somatostatinergic neurons was able to recapitulate several hallmark features of type 2 diabetes in disease relevant tissues.

Grid1 Regulates the Onset of Puberty in Female Rats

The present study aimed to investigate whether Grid1, encoding the glutamate ionotropic receptor delta type subunit 1(GluD1), influences the onset of puberty in female rats. First, we detected the expression of Grid1 mRNA and its protein in the hypothalamus from infancy to puberty. Second, we evaluated the suppression of Grid1 expression by Lentivirus-Grid1 (LV-Grid1) in primary hypothalamus cells through measuring the expression level of Grid1. Finally, LV-Grid1 was intracerebroventricular injected (ICV) into 21-day-old rats and to investigate the effect of Grid1 suppression on puberty onset in vivo. Results showed that GluD1 immunoreactivity could be detected in the arcuate nucleus (ARC), paraventricular nucleus (PVN), and periventricular nucleus (PeN). Grid1 mRNA levels were the lowest at prepuberty. Treatment of hypothalamic neurons with LV-Grid1 decreased the mRNA expression levels of Grid1 and Rfrp-3 (encoding RFamide-related peptide 3, RFRP 3), but increased that of Gnrh (encoding gonadotropin-releasing hormone, GnRH). After 7 days of ICV LV-Grid1 into rats, the Grid1 mRNA was significantly reduced (by 46%), Gnrh mRNA expression was significantly increased, but Rfrp-3 mRNA levels were decreased. The time of rat vaginal opening (VO) was earlier in the LV-Grid1 group; the concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), and progesterone (P4) in serum were significantly increased; and the ovaries were significantly larger. Our study revealed that Grid1 affects the onset of puberty by regulating the level of GnRH and RFRP3.

GABAergic input through GABAB receptors is necessary during a perinatal window to shape gene expression of factors critical to reproduction such as Kiss1

Lack of GABAB receptors in GABAB1 knockout mice decreases neonatal ARC kisspeptin 1 ( Kiss1) expression in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC) in females, which show impaired reproduction as adults. Our aim was to selectively impair GABAB signaling during a short postnatal period to evaluate its impact on the reproductive system. Neonatal male and female mice were injected with the GABAB antagonist CGP 55845 (CGP, 1 mg/kg body wt sc) or saline from postnatal day 2 ( PND2) to PND6, three times per day (8 AM, 1 PM, and 6 PM). One group was killed on PND6 for collection of blood samples (hormones by radioimmunoassay), brains for gene expression in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus-periventricular nucleus continuum (AVPV/PeN), and ARC micropunches [quantitative PCR (qPCR)] and gonads for qPCR, hormone contents, and histology. A second group of mice was injected with CGP (1 mg/kg body wt sc) or saline from PND2 to PND6, three times per day (8 AM, 1 PM, and 6 PM), and left to grow to adulthood. We measured body weight during development and parameters of sexual differentiation, puberty onset, and estrous cycles. Adult mice were killed, and trunk blood (hormones), brains for qPCR, and gonads for qPCR and hormone contents were obtained. Our most important findings on PND6 include the CGP-induced decrease in ARC Kiss1 and increase in neurokinin B ( Tac2) in both sexes; the decrease in AVPV/PeN tyrosine hydroxylase ( Th) only in females; the increase in gonad estradiol content in both sexes; and the increase in primordial follicles and decrease in primary and secondary follicles. Neonatally CGP-treated adults showed decreased ARC Kiss1 and ARC gonadotropin-releasing hormone ( Gnrh1) and increased ARC glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 ( Gad1) only in males; increased ARC GABAB receptor subunit 1 ( Gabbr1) in both sexes; and decreased AVPV/PeN Th only in females. We demonstrate that ARC Kiss1 expression is chronically downregulated in males and that the normal sex difference in AVPV/PeN Th expression is abolished. In conclusion, neonatal GABAergic input through GABAB receptors shapes gene expression of factors critical to reproduction.

Glutamatergic Activation of Neuronostatin Neurons in the Periventricular Nucleus of the Hypothalamus

Neuronostatin, a newly identified anorexigenic peptide, is present in the central nervous system. We tested the hypothesis that neuronostatin neurons are activated by feeding as a peripheral factor and that the glutamatergic system has regulatory influences on neuronostatin neurons. The first set of experiments analyzed the activation of neuronostatin neurons by refeeding as a physiological stimulus and the effectiveness of the glutamatergic system on this physiological stimulation. The subjects were randomly divided into three groups: the fasting group, refeeding group, and 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX)+refeeding group. We found that refeeding increased the phosphorylated signal transducers and transcription activator-5 (pSTAT5) expression in neuronostatin-positive neurons and that the CNQX injection significantly suppressed the number of pSTAT5-expressing neuronostatin neurons. The second set of experiments analyzed the activation pathways of neuronostatin neurons and the regulating effects of the glutamatergic system on neuronostatin neurons. The animals received intraperitoneal injections of glutamate receptor agonists (kainic acid, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5methyl-4-isoazepropionic acid (AMPA), and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)) or 0.9% NaCl. The number of c-Fos-expressing neuronostatin neurons significantly increased following the AMPA and NMDA injections. In conclusion, we found that the neuronostatin neurons were activated by peripheral or central signals, including food intake and/or glutamatergic innervation, and that the glutamate receptors played an important role in this activation.

SUN-244 Role of Activin, Follistatin, and Inhibin in the Regulation of KISS-1 Gene Expression in Hypothalamic Cell Models

Kisspeptin (encoded by the Kiss-1 gene) in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus governs the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis by regulating pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Meanwhile, kisspeptin in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) region has been implicated in estradiol (E2)-induced GnRH surges. Kiss-1-expressing cell model mHypoA-55 exhibits characteristics of Kiss-1 neurons in the ARC region. On the other hand, Kiss-1 expressing mHypoA-50 cells originate from the AVPV region. In the mHypoA-55 ARC cells, activin significantly increased Kiss-1 gene expression. Follistatin alone reduced Kiss-1 expression within these cells. Interestingly, activin-induced Kiss-1 gene expression was completely abolished by follistatin. Inhibin A, but not inhibin B reduced Kiss-1 expression. Activin-increased Kiss-1 expression was also abolished by inhibin A. Pretreatment of the cells with follistatin or inhibin A significantly inhibited kisspeptin- or GnRH-induced Kiss-1 gene expression in mHypoA-55 cells. In contrast, in the mHypoA-50 AVPV cell model, activin, follistatin, and inhibin A did not modulate Kiss-1 gene expression. The subunits that compose activin and inhibin, as well as follistatin were expressed in both mHypoA-55 and mHypoA-50 cells. Expression of inhibin βA and βB subunits and follistatin was much higher in mHypoA-55 ARC cells. Furthermore, we found that expression of the inhibin αsubunit and follistatin genes was modulated in the presence of E2 in mHypoA-55 ARC cells. The results of this study suggest that activin, follistatin, and inhibin A within the ARC region participate in the regulation of the HPG axis under the influence of E2.