Ethnic Conflicts and Peacebuilding in Georgia

The chapter deals with the problem of territorial integrity of Georgia, particularly two adjusted regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Today, 20% of Georgian territory is occupied. After the Russian-Georgian War in 2008, things changed radically to the detriment of Georgia's national interests, in particular, the occupation of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by Russia, their recognition as independent states, and ethnic cleansing of Georgians by disregarding the fundamental principles of international law. All these are known to the international community, and it became visible to the whole world. The issues are in the field of permanent national interests of Georgia. Under such situation, it became necessary to search for new ways of conflict resolution based only upon real politics.

Is Federalism the Source of Ethnic Identity-Based Conflict in Ethiopia?

Though statehood nature traced back to ancient times, modern Ethiopia came into being in the second half of the nineteenth century under the military expansion of King Menelik II. Since then subsequent political systems in the country have failed to recognise and accommodate the country’s ethnolinguistic diversity. However, in 1991 the new government constitutionally recognised and institutionally accommodated the country’s diversity. While solving old problems of ethnic inequality and injustice, ethnic federalism has created new problems of ethnic tensions and conflict across Ethiopia. The article aims at investigating how and why ethnic federalism ended up being a source of ethnic conflicts in Ethiopia and suggests the way out. The article employed a qualitative research design and methods of data analysis and interpretation. The finding of the study shows the notion and implementation of federalism has to be blamed, which left unclear administration boundary, overlooked cross-cutting variables, Majority versus minority and Titular versus Settler problem, politicised ethnicity by transformed cultural communities into political communities, produced mega ethnic syndrome within the Ethiopian society, for the country’s ethnic troubles and conflicts. Reforming the federal system and its constitutions is the way forwarded to reduce ethnic tensions and create an inclusive society in Ethiopia.

„Zrodzona z kryzysu, pogrzebana przez katastrofę”. Europa Środkowa jako projekt skazany na porażkę [“Born Out of Crisis, Buried by Catastrophe”: Central Europe as a Project Doomed to Failure]

“Born Out of Crisis, Buried by Catastrophe”: Central Europe as a Project Doomed to FailureIn her paper, the author examines images of Central Europe created in various popular genres (campus novels, quasi-guidebooks, films, essays) as well as interpretations of the Central European myth from countries of the region. The aim is to reflect on two main Central European narratives. One is a vision of retrospective utopia of lost harmonious coexistence of cultures, religions and nations. The other – an image of the “misery of small Central European states”, of a backward region, immersed in never-ending ethnic conflicts. The author seeks to address the question of how these narratives influence the interpretation of the systemic transition process and of contemporary problems that the region is facing. „Zrodzona z kryzysu, pogrzebana przez katastrofę” Europa Środkowa jako projekt skazany na porażkęAutorka przygląda się obrazom Europy Środkowej tworzonym w różnych obiegach kultury popularnej (satyryczne powieści z nurtu akademickiego, quasi-przewodniki, filmy), a także narracjom na temat mitu Europy Środkowej tworzonym w państwach tego regionu. Przedmiotem artykułu jest namysł nad dwoma modelami opowiadania o tym obszarze – nad wizją utraconej utopii harmonijnej egzystencji kultur, wyznań i narodów oraz nad obrazem „nędznych państw”, obszaru zacofanego cywilizacyjnie, pogrążonego w nieustających konfliktach etnicznych i sprzyjającego dyskryminacji wielu grup społecznych. Główne pytanie dotyczy kwestii, jak te narracje wpłynęły na sposób ujmowania przemian związanych z transformacją ustrojową w regionie oraz współczesnych problemów, z którymi się on mierzy.

Àsùwàda Principle and Inter-Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria

This paper examines the àsùwàdà principle as an indigenous social theory, which is based on alásùwàdà, a body of doctrines according to which the creator of human beings and everything in nature, dá (created) individual human beings as à-sù-wà (beings who can only live successfully as part of a human group with a purpose). By establishing a teleological or purposeful unity and interconnectedness among all human beings, the àsùwàdà principle suggests that all human beings are created to be gregarious in nature and enjoy the best ìwà (existence or character) when they sù-wà (live in group). This paper interrogates the àsùwàdà principle in relation to the problem of ethnic conflicts in Nigeria. The paper concludes that if as human beings, we are dá (created) to be àsùwà, then, with the complementary ideas of alájọbí, alájọgbé, and ìfọgbọ́ntáyéṣe, ethnic pluralism should not necessarily lead to ethnic antagonism or conflict.

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE SOUTH CAUCASIAN COUNTRIES: RESULTS AND NEW CHALLENGES

The newly independent states (South Caucasian countries being no exception), the products of the Soviet Union’s traumatic disintegration, needed independent foreign policies. Throughout the three decades of their independence they formulated their priorities and defined approaches and principles under strong pressure of certain factors. This process has been unfolding amid the complicated social and political processes and geopolitical transformations in the region shaken by the post-Soviet ethnic conflicts. As could be expected, the newly independent South Caucasian states opted for different routes in their economic and statehood development, while their ruling elites took into account the external and internal contexts when shaping their foreign policies. Different approaches and different foreign policy priorities opened the doors to non-regional geopolitical actors: the United States, the European Union, Iran and Turkey have joined Russia, whose presence is rooted in its past. Recently, China, Israel and Japan have become interested in the region. Thus, today the regional countries are orientated to the interests of non-regional states. This has not benefited the situation in the region or cooperation among the regional states. Foreign policy of the South Caucasian countries is inseparable from the regional security problems, which means that it should become an object of meticulous studies. In the latter half of 2020, the war in Nagorno-Karabakh changed the region’s geopolitical setting and shattered its stability. The article sums up the results of the policies pursued by the South Caucasian countries and identifies the challenges and possible developments in the region after the Karabakh war of 2020.

Cases of contemporary re-Islamization among Roma in Bulgaria

Since the beginning of the 1990s, various religious processes can be observed among the Roma community and other ethnic minorities in Bulgaria. In parallel with the conversion of Orthodox Christian and Sunni Muslim Roma to evangelical Christianity, processes of re-Islamization have also been taking place. Based on a series of legislative and judicial decisions taken by local and state institutions, cases of re-Islamization have been presented to the public as examples of the spread of radical Islam, a trend that could lead to ethnic conflicts and to the perception that the Roma are a threat to national security. Contrary to this already popular notion, the results of my ethnological study (2018-2020) among various local Roma Islamic groups in Southern Bulgaria led to a different conclusion. This paper draws attention to small groups of newly converted Turkish-speaking Roma and focuses on the emic perspective of the members of the studied groups regarding the interpretation of the new religious ideas they more or less adhere to.

Ethnic conflict in Ethiopia: Federalism as a cause and solution

Adopted in 1991, ethnic federalism indeed paved the way for the recognition, accommodation, and institutionalization of ethnocultural diversity for the first time in the country’s history since its modern existence. What is equally important is, the practice of ethnic federalism complicated state-society and inter-group relationships creating a favorable environment for ethnic confrontation and conflict to take place in the country threatening national unity, eroded century-old values of coexistence, a hard ethnic boundary where administrative boundaries are served as political and ethnic differentiators like the Oromo and Somali conflict over contested boundaries. Territorial recognition, and institutionalization of ethnicity gave room for the emergence of ‘ethnic like and ethnic others’ thinking, made minorities in different regions victims of politics and failed to provide sound accommodation mechanisms from them, severely restricted people’s constitutional rights including the right to mobility and right to work, created room for the re-emergence of secessionist tendency. Hence, ethnic federalism while solving old problems of ethnic inequality and injustice; has created new problems of ethnic tensions and conflict across Ethiopia. It is the purpose of this study to investigate how and why federalism is being considered as the source of ethnic conflicts in the Ethiopian context. The study adopted a qualitative comparative approach while FGDs and key informant interviews were used to gather data. The finding of the study shows that though multinational federation plays an irreplaceable role to accommodate and institutionalize ethnocultural diversity, the notion and implementation of federalism instigate ethnic conflict in the Ethiopian context.

Between the Czech Krkonoše and the German Riesengebirge: Nationalism and Tourism in the Giant Mountains, 1880s–1930s

The article deals with Czech and German nationalist discourses and practices in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as they relate to tourism in the Krkonoše/Riesengebirge, the highest Central European mountain range between the Alps and Scandinavia. It will discuss the discourses developed in relation to mountain tourism and nationalism (metaphors of battlefields, wedges, walls, gates, and bastions), different symbolical cores of mountains, and practices of tourist and nationalist organizations (tourist trails and markings, excursions, the ownership of mountains huts, languages used, memorials, and the construction of roads). It will examine how these discourses and practices changed from the first Czech-German ethnic conflicts in the 1800s until the end of interwar Czechoslovakia. Finally, it will discuss the Czech culture of defeat in the shadow of the Munich Agreement, which meant the occupation of the Giant Mountains by Nazi Germany.

ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS AS A MODERN PROBLEM OF EUROPEAN SECURITY

The article analyzes the results of a comprehensive study of a modern ethnopolitical processes in Europe and their impact on European security. In the context of its dynamic reveals that there is a strong connection between ethnic and political confrontation of individual groups. The article highlights the ethnic and political specificity and nature of conflicts in Europe, causes and factors of their occurrence and the impact on national security. Examined the modern level of linguistic, cultural, political and religious orientations and preferences, regional identity and characteristics of the social behavior of the European region’s population. Grounded set of proposals on improving the prevention and elimination of the most significant hazards. The article’s first goal is to understand the causes of ethnic conflicts in Europe. Why some potential ethnical conflicts do not happen at all, while others can produce violence, warfare and, even, in some cases, genocide? Why some ethnic conflicts get resolved and others do not? One more goal is to find out how we can predict and, perhaps, prevent ethno-political warfare. The EU is trying to be successful in resolving these conflicts through legislation system of those countries where conflicts are most acute. Europe has many problem areas. The most developed countries – UK, Spain, Belgium and Denmark – have also some kind of ethnic instability inside which causes some kind of ethnic instability inside theirs countries. National governments are trying to solve ethno-political conflicts on their own. However, the spirit of nationalism, disobedience and personal freedom are very strong in these places. The local population is not going to give up in their aspiration for independence and, sometimes, calls for separatism. The article suggests some possible solutions for these conflicts where the government and local communities can be involved. In this article also describes possible effects that can be caused by European ethno-political conflicts. Anyway, the most dangerous consequences is spontaneous uncontrolled migration inside Europe and international terrorism.