Architectural theory as a tool for architectural criticism necessarily employed for the betterment of architectural education

Criticism, or "to criticize" derives from the Greek krinein meant to distinguish, which is to separate, to silt, to make a distinction. The word "theory" comes from the philosophical Latin term "theoria" meaning spectator, while in modern days means the attempt to decide architectural right and wrong on a purely intellectual base. Pedagogically architecture students participating in a review learn from whoever provides useful criticism benefiting from critiques or reviews. This research in comparison to the ones that went through focuses on Architectural Criticism and Architectural Theory and which one stems from the other, their significance in architectural education in form of crit or review and shows a road map of how reviews are to take place by their different constituents. The purpose of the paper is to see whether the architectural theory is stemming from architectural criticism and whether it’s employed in architectural education. The methodology of this paper depends on both theoretical and analytical studies through three major fields; architectural criticism, architectural theory, and the analytical study of architectural education in form of critique or review. Finally, the paper concludes by linking architectural education mostly in its architectural design projects critique or review form with architectural theory and its dependence upon architectural criticism.

TERMHOOD OF VERBS IN ENGLISH MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

В статье проведен анализ глаголов, обозначающих различные медицинские процессы, действия и состояния, выявлена степень их терминологичности путем определения их соответствия требованиям, предъявляемым к терминам. Материалом исследования послужили словари и монографии медицинской направленности. Объект исследования - англоязычные глагольные единицы, обозначающие специальные медицинские действия или состояния. Дефиниционный, когнитивный, семантический, словообразовательный, этимологический и сравнительный методы анализа позволили всесторонне описать исследуемые глаголы как языковые единицы, способные к терминологическому функционированию. В настоящей работе на основании семантических, формальных и прагматических требований, предъявляемых к терминам, был проведен анализ специфики глагольных единиц как единиц языка для специальных целей. Исследование показало, что глагольные единицы, обозначающие специальные медицинские процессы, действия и состояния, в полной мере отвечают требованиям терминологичности и реализуют их в медицинском научном тексте. В медицинском дискурсе глаголы проявляют специфические особенности семантической организации обозначаемых ими понятий. Глаголы способны реализовывать терминологическое значение как самостоятельно, так и в сочетании с термином-существительным или прилагательным. Терминологизируясь, глаголы приобретают точное, конкретизированное значение. Некоторые специальные медицинские глаголы могут быть использованы в роли эвфемизмов. Глаголы в роли терминов, подобно терминам-существительным, способны вступать в системные отношения (полисемия, синонимия), образуются при помощи тех же словообразовательных способов, что и термины-существительные, образуются при помощи греко-латинских терминоэлементов, категориально и концептуально связаны с соответствующими терминами-существительными. Глаголы в медицинском дискурсе отражают динамические научные концепты, являются средством сохранения и передачи профессиональной информации. На основе проведенного исследования можно констатировать, что глаголы, функционирующие в медицинском дискурсе, обладают большой степенью терминологичности. Они отвечают классическим требованиям, предъявляемым к терминам. Глаголы также отвечают параметрам, накладываемым современным когнитивным терминоведением. The article analyses English verbs denoting various medical processes, actions and states, reveals their termhood by studying the way they meet requirements for terms. The materials of the study were medical dictionaries and monographs. The verbs denoting medical processes, actions and states became the objects of the investigation. The employed methods of definitional, cognitive, semantic, derivational, etymological, and comparative analyses allowed us to describe the verbs as language units capable of functioning as terms. In the present article the verbs are studied as the elements of the language for special purposes according to the semantic, formal and pragmatic requirements for the terms. The verbs denoting medical processes, actions and states completely meet these requirements and demonstrate them in medical tests. In the medical discourse the verbs manifest the peculiarities of semantic organization of the notions they denote. The verbs can show terminological meaning independently or in a combination with noun or adjective terms. Becoming terms, verbs obtain exact and specificated meaning. Some verbs with medical meaning can be used as euphemisms. Functioning as terms, verbs can enter into systemic relations (like polysemy, synonymy), they are formed by the same word-building methods as noun terms, they are formed from Greek and Latin term elements, the categories and concepts they represent are connected with the ones of corresponding noun terms. Verbs in medical discourse reflect dynamic scientific concepts and are the means to preserve and transfer professional data. The performed analysis demonstrates that the verbs functioning in the medical discourse can be considered as terms. They meet the requirements for terms as well as the requirements of modern cognitive branch of terminology science.

Should Skepticism Be Discredited?

In our day-to-day life and experiences, when one doubts or questions unusually, he is branded a skeptic and consequently resisted. Skeptics, over the years, are seen as people whose basic mood is that of doubt; those who deny absolutely that true knowledge is possible. Although this is not completely true of skepticism, the present work demonstrates, though arguably, that skepticism is more of a philosophical method of inquiry; an epistemological attitude towards knowledge but whose goal is indeed certainty, although it selects a serious doubt concerning all knowledge as the starting point of the inquiry into the possibility of true knowledge. It can rightly be said that the work displays the paradox of skepticism. The word ‘paradox’ originates from a Latin term paradoxum, which has a Greek association paradoxon, or paradoxos, signifying “conflicting with expectation.” Thus, the word paradox signifies a tenet or proposition contrary to received opinions. It is a statement or sentiment that is seemingly contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet, perhaps true in fact. The need for this work is necessitated by the fact that in the present age, it has become no longer the case that the best way to certainty is only by accepting entirely all that one is told, especially when such comes from a sage or a tradition. Obviously, we live in a dispensation where almost every human situation challenges the human rational faculty hence the tendency to change facts and hang-on to lies generates serious fever in every thinking mind. The result of this work therefore is that imperatively, the work demands that whoever wants knowledge should proceed through doubt. The method through which this work arrives at this conclusion is the analytic process of discussion and presentation.

Why Cato did not want to feed the sick slaves, or Some observations on the Roman economy of slavery

The article is devoted to the study of the Second Chapter Agriculture of Cato the Elder. The author pays the main attention to the advice of Cato not to give full rations to sick slaves, which became widely known thanks to the biographical work of Plutarch. Not denying the possibility the existence of such a practice, the author attempts to identify its roots, originating in the traditions of traditional medicine, which is reflected in the 126-157 chapters of Catos Agriculture. In particular, attention is drawn to the author's repeated mention that medication should be taken on an empty stomach, for which Cato consistently uses the Latin term ieiunus. In particular, the author draws attention to the fact that Cato often mentions that the intake of medicines should be made on a empty stomach, for which the Roman author often uses the Latin term ieiunus. In general, the text of Catos work reflects work reflects as archaic beliefs and norms, as well as new concepts and values.

Surrogacy in India: ethics versus incentive

The word surrogacy has its origin among the Latin term “surrogatus” which suggests a lady acts as a substitute for a pregnant woman. Surrogacy has been in practice form last thirty years. The surrogacy regulated by business can be classified as then, altruistic surrogacy and commercial surrogacy. The paper aim to conduct systematic review on surrogacy. The literature review was conducted using PubMed and alternative search engines. Further, additional information concerning the constitutional articles was collected from search engines like legal service of India, prsinndia.org, icmr.nic.in, Press Information Bureau, Wikipedia, IJCM and Indiankanoon. In India, surrogacy is legally recognised since 2002. This paper looks into various aspects of surrogacy. Factors faced by the surrogate mother such as exploitation, psychological conditions, human rights, dignity and respect, feminism and religious issues are explored. The paper discuss the economic benefit is mostly enjoyed by the medical practitioners. The Indian government tried to curb the problems by updating the law to overcome the challenges but with time government introduce the surrogacy bill in 2016 which addressed many issues and still in 2020 it address various aspects of surrogacy to prevent the exploitation.

Greetings from Prison and Greetings from Caesar’s House (Philippians 4.22): A Reconsideration of an Enigmatic Greek Expression in the Light of the Context and Setting of Philippians

The Greek expression οἱ ἐκ τῆς Καίσαρος οἰκίας in Phil. 4.22 is unique. Late antique interpreters identified the group with the imperial court or immediate imperial family. In the nineteenth century, however, Ferdinand Christian Baur was skeptical that the historical Paul preached to Nero’s family and therefore counted Philippians among the post-Pauline pseudepigraphical letters. Against this radical historical-critical approach, Joseph Barber Lightfoot and Adolf Deissmann developed their influential hypothesis: οἰκία Καίσαρος ‘represents’ the Latin familia Caesaris – that is, the whole of the imperial household, including all slaves. However, because there is no technical Latin term familia Caesaris in antiquity, οἱ ἐκ τῆς Καίσαρος οἰκίας cannot mean imperial slaves and freedpersons. Instead, I argue that the expression is a spontaneously coined code, a creative metaphor reflecting the conditions of a prisoner in an imperial prison in Ephesus. The saints from the house of Caesar are most likely Paul’s believing co-prisoners.

A PROBLEMATIZAÇÃO DA IMAGEM MASCULINA DA FAMÍLIA BURGUESA EM “OS FIOS DAS MISSANGAS”

A literatura pode contribuir tanto para ampliar a noção social quanto para atender as necessidades simbólicas das pessoas. Sob esse viés, o livro de contos “Os fios das missangas”, do moçambicano Mia Couto, surge como o terreno no qual as reflexões sobre família e sexualidade germinam. O termo família, do latim famulus, designa o servidor, o criado. Do mundo antigo centrado no pater onde faziam parte esposa, filhos, patrimônios, animais e servidores, à família burguesa composta por marido, esposa e filhos, este núcleo social sempre vinculou deveres, funções e interditos. Cada membro tem além de um “papel social”, também uma determinada “imagem” de pai, de mãe ou de filho, que corresponde a uma expectativa de comportamento emocional e sexual. Neste sentido, o presente artigo problematiza a imagem tradicional do pai, do filho e do amante a partir dos contos “As três irmãs”, “O fio e as missangas” e “Peixe para Eulália” e apresenta novas formas de simbolizar o desejo e o sentimento amoroso.Palavras-chave: Mia Couto. Fio das Missangas. Família. Desejo.ABSTRACTLiterature can contribute both to broaden the social notion, as well as, to meet people symbolic needs. The book of short stories, “Os fios da missanga”, by the Mozambican Mia Couto emerges as the ground in which reflections on family and sexuality germinate. The latin term famulus designates the server, the servant. From the ancient world centered on the pater formed by the wife, children, assets, animals and servants to the bourgeois family composed by husband, wife and children, this social nucleus has Always been associated to duties, functions and interdicts. Each member has not only a “social role”, but also a certain father, mother or child ‘image’; which corresponds to an expectation of emotional and sexual behavior. In this sense, the present article from the short stories “As três irmãs”, “O fio e as missangas” e “Peixe para Eulália”, problematizes the traditional image of the father, of the son and of the lover, presenting new ways of symbolizing the desire and the loving feeling.Keywords: Mia Couto. Fio das Missangas. Family. Desire.

The History of Syphilis in The XVI Century and The Pivotal Role of Luigi Luigini in the Renaissance

Syphilis is the prime example of a “new disease” which triggered a transnational (European) discussion among physicians. It appeared between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Times (at the beginning of the sixteenth century), a time in which medicine was changing from a dogmatic to an experimental discipline. The main changes were in the field of anatomy: in 1543, the same year of the astronomy-disrupting work by Nicolas Copernicus, the new less dogmatic and more empirical approach to anatomy by Andreas Vesalius was published. Nevertheless, in the Renaissance, medicine remains a tradition-bound discipline, proud of its millennial history and its superiority over the empirical, non-academic healers. When syphilis appeared in Europe, several explanations were elaborated. In the mid-16th century, an Italian doctor Luigi Luigini (born in 1526) published in Venice a collection of all the works on syphilis that appeared until 1566. He wanted to entrust to colleagues, contemporary and future, a compendium of all that was known about the “new” disease (the Latin term Novus means both “new” and “strange”). According to the most authors of the collection, the disease is in fact “new” and “strange”. Some authors of the collection find it impossible that authorities like Hippocrates and Galen overlooked it. Luigini’s work shows the authors’ effort to absorb syphilis in the corpus of academic medicine and affirm the authority of academic physicians against the empirical healers.

Is There Such a Thing as “Religion”? In Search of the Roots of Spirituality

That there exists something like religion seems self-evident. Anthropologists, we are told, have discovered that all cultures have a religion of some kind. But what is “religion”? If we trace the concept to its origins in religio, we see that our current definition of the term is considerably different. The Latin term religio has to do with virtue or fulfilling one’s obligations to one’s family and community. It has nothing immediately to do with gods, the supernatural, and the afterlife. In contrast, “religion” – something to do with a kind of belief or faith – took about a millennium to take shape. At stake here is a distinction that continues to grow in importance with the increasing number of “nones,” people who consider themselves “non-religious” but are sometimes willing to label themselves “spiritual.” Such a distinction is only meaningful to the extent there is a difference. My paper begins by establishing the nature and the scope of the question. Then I consider Husserl’s idea of returning to the origin – the Ursprung. In effect, Husserl’s quest can be considered an archaeology. Yet an archaeology of religion or even “spirituality” turns out to be impossible. In light of that, I ask: Is there something like primordial religion – something that we could likewise experience today? I suggest that we can find it in Plato, Aristotle, and Kant – an awe or wonder in face of the complexity of the universe. William Cantwell Smith speaks of “the archaic meaning of religio as that awe that men felt in the presence of an uncanny and dreadful power of the unknown.” That awe in religio and philosophy seem to be fundamentally the same. But, if that is the case, then the distinction between “religious” and “spiritual” may not have any real basis.

From dogs and hounds to languages and dialects

Chapter 4 illustrates the way in which the Swiss humanist Conrad Gessner, an important language scholar, bibliographer, and zoologist, conceived of the Latin term dialectus in opposition to lingua. Renaissance intellectuals were confronted with a major information explosion, also on the languages of the world, and Gessner was one of the first to try and classify human speech in all its diversity. He did so in his Mithridates of 1555, the first ever language catalogue, in which the term dialectus frequently appeared. The word served to bring more nuance into the relationships between speech forms and is, as it was not in ancient and medieval times, clearly taken to be a variety of a language. For this interpretation, Gessner was inspired not only by ancient sources but also by the works of his contemporaries. Unlike Roger Bacon, the Swiss humanist was not an isolated pioneer, but the exponent of an early sixteenth-century trend.