Role of Foreseeability in Imposition of Civil Liability

The purpose of this article is to offer an insight into the role of foreseeability in imposition of civil liability. The article contains analysis of the principle of foresee­ability from various points of view, for example, by analysing it from the perspective of the general (fault-based) model of liability as well of the strict liability. Likewise, the article analysis the role of foreseeability during determination of preconditions to civil liability, for example, by introducing it into the concepts of “fault” and “causation”. The aspects referred to in this article are predominantly analysed from the theoretical perspective. The article references various legal sources from different countries, which allows other legal scholars to use the conclusions offered herein.

May the Patient’s Will, Expressed by Means of Assistive Communication Technologies, be Admissible as Evidence in Court Proceedings?

The article is dedicated to hallmark the problem of accepting evidence of a patient’s will by a court in diverse proceedings, and it being communicated by non-classical means. Modern technologies allow patients to communicate utilizing various electrified appliances, in case the disabled person suffers from an ailment, or a health disorder affecting speech and mental abilities. Such appliances may truly enhance the patient’s quality of life; however, it is uncertain whether such patient may be found to be a competent witness, or the information reflecting their will obtained in a non-classical method may be found to be as convincing evidence by the court. Currently, there is very little judicial precedent dealing with obtaining evidence of the patient’s will by means of assistive communication technologies, though recent Italian legacy has shown such evidence may be accepted by the court, in case forensic-psychiatric examination approves adequacy of the cognitive abilities of the patient, rendering their will competent. Diverse legal systems render the question of patient’s competence differently, and the issue of accepting information as evidence obtained by means of assistive communication technologies will surely become more frequent in disputes relating to testament validity or determining the patient’s will to undergo or forego medical treatment. Such cases may be of high relevance in civil proceedings on withdrawal of life-supporting treatment, which will ultimately result in the patient’s demise. Keywords: patient’s autonomy, patient’s legal capacity, withdrawal of life-supporting treatment, assistive communication technologies, theory of evidence, critically-ill patients.

Contract for Work (locatio conductio operis) of Transportation and Rustic Praedial Servitude of Way (servitus viae) as Roman Law Institutions for Needs of Rural Logistics

The article deals with the results of the authors’ research performed on original sources of Roman Law with reference to legal constructions concerning various types of logistics challenges related to agricultural production and residence in rural areas. Provision of transportation services was regulated by means of a contract for work (locatio conductio operis) – an agreement according to which a contractor / employee as a lessee (conductor, redemptor operis) had obligations to fulfil services or certain work on or from the material supplied by the commissioning party / employer / lessor (locator). An agreement on transportation of goods or passengers was also considered to be a contract for work. A smart answer to infrastructure challenges was the so-called rustic praedial servitudes (servitutes praediorum rusticorum), including a servitude of way / road (via), which granted the owner of a parcel of land non-adjacent to a public road (via publica) the right to use the road over a parcel of land belonging to another owner, thus gaining access to the public road. The legal framework of a Roman contract for work of transportation and the rustic praedial servitude of way / road must be recognised as a rather effective solution for challenges of rural logistics at the time. Keywords: contract for work of transportation, servitude of way, Roman Law, rural logistics.

Challenge of Advocate’s Profession in the Age of Money Laundering, Terrorism Financing and Proliferation Evasion “Not to slip with a fragile burden!"

Ability to perform advocate’s duty is irrevocably linked to advocate’s immunity concept. The article provides an insight about the scope of advocate’s immunity concept in the age of money laundering. The purpose of it is to analyse the modern tendency to overstep the red lines guarding this concept, when applying legal enactments for money laundering evasion purposes. In the article, the judgment of 19 November 2020 in case “Klaus Mueller vs Germany” made by European Court of Human Rights, is analysed, where the issue of advocate’s immunity was considered in joint connection with the Clause 8 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The sometimes-exaggerated need for transparency at all costs conflicts with privacy protection aspects of individuals. Legislative enactments of money laundering and terrorism financing and proliferation evasion systemically contradicts Law of Advocacy and causes collision with other norms of higher legal rank such as fundamental rights enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights to fair trial and justice and rights to choose an occupation and engage in work. Keywords: advocate’s immunity concept, advocate’s rights to professional secret and confidentiality, legal certainty, money laundering and terrorism financing and proliferation evasion, principle of sound legislation, uncertain privilege.

Terorisma tiesiskā regulējuma problēmas

Terorisma draudi pēdējos gados ir pieauguši un kļuvuši daudzpusīgāki, tie ir viens no visnopietnākajiem universālo vērtību – cilvēka cieņas, brīvības, līdztiesības un solidaritātes, cilvēktiesību un pamatbrīvību – pārkāpumiem un viens no visnopietnākajiem uzbrukumiem demokrātijas un tiesiskuma principiem. Teroristiskās vardarbības akti ir noziegumi pret sabiedrisko drošību un mieru. Saukt pie atbildības par tiem var saskaņā ar vispārējām krimināltiesiskām normām par slepkavību, sprādzienu organizāciju un citiem vardarbīgiem noziegumiem bez nepieciešamības pierādīt speciālo teroristisko nodomu – tieši iebaidīt iedzīvotājus vai ietekmēt valdību veikt vai neveikt noteiktas darbības. Daudzas personas, kuru izdarīto noziedzīgo nodarījumu pazīmes liecina par vēlmi ietekmēt valdību vai iebaidīt iedzīvotājus, sekmīgi notiesātas, nepiemērojot speciālos antiteroristiskos likumus. Speciālās normas tiek pieņemtas, lai dotu iespēju saukt pie atbildības visu ar teroristisko darbību saistīto personu loku: organizatorus, vadītājus, vervētājus un atbalstītājus. Laika gaitā katrā pasaules valstī ir izveidojusies sava krimināltiesību un kriminālprocesuālo tiesību sistēma. Nozīmīgākie krimināltiesību attīstību ietekmējošie faktori ir valsts ģeogrāfiskais stāvoklis, vēsture un sabiedrības attīstība, valstu nacionālās īpatnības un specifiskās iezīmes, noziedzības struktūra un tās jaunās izpausmes. Krimināltiesību attīstības virzienus ietekmē starptautisko un reģionālo organizāciju izveide un darbība, kā arī politisko procesu attīstības tendences pasaulē. Ir svarīgi izveidot pienācīgus instrumentus, lai aizsargātu Eiropas Savienības (ES) pilsoņus un visus ES iedzīvotājus un novērstu šādus pārkāpumus efektīvā un samērīgā veidā, kas ir pietiekams, lai risinātu apdraudējumu, ar ko saskaras ES, vienlaikus saglabājot sabiedrības modeli, kurā valda plurālisms, nediskriminācija, tolerance, taisnīgums, solidaritāte un līdztiesība. Terrorist threat has grown and evolved in recent years. Acts of terrorism constitute one of the most serious violations of universal values: human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity, human rights and fundamental freedoms, and they also represent one of the most serious attacks on the principles of democracy and the rule of law. Acts of terrorist violence are crimes against public security and peace. They can be prosecuted in accordance with the general criminal law provisions on murder, organisation of explosions and other violent crimes, without the need to prove the special terrorist intent to intimidate the population directly or influence the government to take or not to take certain actions. A large number of people whose criminal characteristics make it possible to see a desire to influence the government or to intimidate the population have been successfully convicted without applying special anti-terrorist laws. The special rules are adopted to enable the entire spectrum of persons involved in terrorist activity to be brought to justice: organisers, managers, recruiters, supporters. Over time, each country in the world has developed its own criminal law and criminal justice system. The most important factors affecting the development of criminal law include: geographical location, history and societal development of the country, national specificities and specific features of the country, structure of crime and its new manifestations. Developments in criminal law are influenced by the establishment and functioning of international and regional organisations and developments in political processes around the world. It is important to have adequate tools in place to protect EU citizens and all people living in the EU and counter such violations in an effective and proportionate manner, which are adequate to meet up to the threats the EU is confronted with, while preserving a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality prevail.

Partnerattiecības un homofobija: tiesiskās problēmas Latvijas Republikā

Šī raksta saturs ir balstīts uz pašas autores sākotnējiem pētījumiem. Pētījumā tika iegūti empīriski pārbaudīti argumenti, ka, ieviešot viendzimuma partnerattiecību likumu, var pasliktināties attieksme pret gejiem un lesbietēm. Lai pārliecinātos par viendzimuma partnerattiecību likuma ieviešanas ilgtermiņa ietekmi uz homofobiju, ir nepieciešams turpināt pētījumus vairākos virzienos. Līdz divdesmit pirmā gadsimta sākumam notika pilngadīgo viendzimuma seksuālo darbību dekriminalizācija, kļūstot tiesību normu, kuru iniciēja Eiropas Savienība, kā arī Eiropas Padome. Tomēr lesbiešu un geju tiesiskajās attiecībās joprojām ir dažas problemātiskas jomas, tostarp viendzimuma pāru atzīšana un viņu kā vecāku tiesības, dibinot ģimeni. In a more global context, it is known that individuals sometimes migrate in order to escape prejudice and discrimination in their country of origin by moving to a more tolerant host country where they can engage in sexual behaviour more freely. Nevertheless, there is almost no research on the consequences of immigration for LGBT people (Carrillo, 2004). Cases of homophobic assault or sexual harassment can take form of physical abuse, verbal or public, and not just public. The author has concluded that if there has been no physical contact in the case of homophobic attacks, no liability for such offenses can be found under criminal law. Analysing the responsibility for hooliganism, it can be concluded that the commission of a criminal offense in a public place does not in itself mean that the crime should be classified as hooliganism, and no other person’s interests were harmed and no serious disturbance of public peace was found. In order to be prosecuted in the case of homophobic assault or sexual harassment, the interests of other persons (society) must be harmed.

Identification of Papillary Patterns in Human Fingers and Toes on the Basis of General Characteristics

The article gives a brief overview of the types of papillary ridge patterns of the skin, their location on the digits of fingers and toes. In this study, the authors of the article aimed to determine whether the papillary ridge patterns of a person’s fingers and toes on the hands and feet of the same side are identical in terms of general characteristics. The methods used were the printing ink imprints on dactyloscopic maps and Microsil® impressions, and the comparison of the obtained impressions.

Tiesiskā regulējuma analīze aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas jautājumos

Rakstā ir veikta aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas tiesiskā analīze un aplūkoti problēmjautājumi, kas saistīti ar aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas sekām. Tā kā likuma izpratnē bērns ir nepilngadīga persona līdz 18 gadu sasniegšanai un viņam trūkst rīcībspējas, bērna aizgādības tiesības īsteno viņa dabiskie aizbildņi – vecāki. Aizgādības tiesību būtība ir ļoti plaša, un to īstenošana vai tiesiska ierobežošana ir aplūkojama no vairākiem aspektiem, kas uzskatāmi norāda uz vairākiem problēmjautājumiem. Publikācijā īpaša uzmanība tiek pievērsta aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas veidiem un to ietekmei uz bērna tiesību un interešu nodrošināšanu. Veicot tiesiskā regulējuma analīzi, tika konstatēts, ka ir trīs aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas veidi. Taču šo tiesību ierobežošanas gadījumā bērnu tiesību un interešu nodrošināšana ir nevienlīdzīga un interpretējama atbilstoši noteiktajiem ierobežojumiem un bērna vecāku izpratnei par aizgādības tiesību būtību. Pētījuma mērķis ir identificēt problēmjautājumus un sniegt priekšlikumus tiesiskā regulējuma pilnveidošanai, lai visos aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas gadījumos bērna tiesību un interešu nodrošināšana būtu vienlīdzīga un bērna vislabākajās interesēs. Raksts veidots divās daļās. Pirmajā daļā aplūkoti aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas veidi un to tiesiskās ierobežošanas problēmjautājumi, savukārt otrajā daļā analizēta aizgādības tiesību ierobežošanas ietekme uz bērna tiesību un interešu nodrošināšanu. The article addresses the question of the legal analysis of the restriction of custody rights and the issues related to the consequences of the restriction of custody rights. As within the meaning of law, a child is a minor until the age of 18, thus he or she lacks the legal capacity, the child’s custody rights are exercised by his or her natural guardians – parents. The nature of custody rights is very broad, and their exercise or legal restriction can be viewed from several aspects, which clearly raises a number of issues. The publication pays special attention to the ways of restricting custody and their impact on ensuring the rights and interests of a child. The analysis of the legal framework revealed that there are three types of restriction of custody rights, which ensure unequal protection of a child’s rights and interests, as the restrictions is interpreted according to the understanding of custody rights by the child’s parents. The aim of the study is to identify the problematic issues and make proposals for the improvement of the legal framework, in order to reach equal protection of the rights and interests of a child in all cases of restriction of custody rights, which would be in the best interests of a child. The article consists of two parts. The first part discusses the types of restriction of custody rights and the problems of their legal limitation, while the second part analyses the impact of restriction of custody rights on ensuring the rights and interests of a child.

Comparison of Emergency State Regulation Experiences in Latvia, France and Belgium

The article analyses the legal framework of emergency state in three countries – Latvia, France and Belgium. The aim of the study is to identify problems thus to improve the national legal framework. Given that the concept of emergency state has gained its relevance in 2020 with the spread of the Covid-19 disease, it has been found that the Emergency State Institute and its legal framework is an important part of every country’s national legal system, as it is a mechanism that helps to strengthen national security in case of external and internal dangers. Analysis of the legal framework of emergency state in Latvia in the context of the selected legal framework of two other countries is an effective way to assess whether the national legal framework requires improvements. In the research such methods were used as cognition, monographic, historical, comparative and analytical method, as well as interpretation of legal provisions recognized in scientific law, which contributed to understanding of the scope of legal norms in national constitutions and other related legislation in the context of the topic. In the result of the study differences in national basic laws and special laws were mainly identified, including the aspect of restriction of human rights, thus contributing to reflection and drawing conclusions on the necessary changes to the national framework. Research also outlines functioning and competence of municipality work in an emergency state.

Ārstniecības personas tiesības paust savu reliģisko pārliecību darba tiesiskajās attiecībās

The rights of medical practitioners are broadly defined in both national and international legislation. The scope of the rights of medical practitioners is evolving along with the development of certain sub-sectors of the field of law. One of the topical issues in the context of the exercise of the rights of medical practitioners is the right of medical practitioners to express their religious beliefs from the Labor law perspective. The right of medical practitioners to freedom of religion is to be seen as part of human rights as well. Member States that have acceded to human rights instruments that protect the right to freedom of religion do not have the right to intervene and take coercive measures to change these views. The right to freedom of religion at the level of human rights applies to a medical practitioner as an individual living in a democratic society and as a person with a medical education who is engaged in medical treatment or prevention, diagnosis and treatment, medical rehabilitation and patient care has rights and obligations within the framework of the activity. The aim of the article is to study the right of medical practitioners to express their religious beliefs in employment relations, as well as to identify problematic issues researching the case law of the CJEU and the ECtHR.