Annual Review of Physiology
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1545-1585, 0066-4278

2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael S. Balzer ◽  
Tibor Rohacs ◽  
Katalin Susztak

The kidney maintains electrolyte, water, and acid-base balance, eliminates foreign and waste compounds, regulates blood pressure, and secretes hormones. There are at least 16 different highly specialized epithelial cell types in the mammalian kidney. The number of specialized endothelial cells, immune cells, and interstitial cell types might even be larger. The concerted interplay between different cell types is critical for kidney function. Traditionally, cells were defined by their function or microscopical morphological appearance. With the advent of new single-cell modalities such as transcriptomics, epigenetics, metabolomics, and proteomics we are entering into a new era of cell type definition. This new technological revolution provides new opportunities to classify cells in the kidney and understand their functions. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Katharine M. Dibb ◽  
William E. Louch ◽  
Andrew W. Trafford

In mammalian cardiac myocytes, the plasma membrane includes the surface sarcolemma but also a network of membrane invaginations called transverse (t-) tubules. These structures carry the action potential deep into the cell interior, allowing efficient triggering of Ca2+ release and initiation of contraction. Once thought to serve as rather static enablers of excitation-contraction coupling, recent work has provided a newfound appreciation of the plasticity of the t-tubule network's structure and function. Indeed, t-tubules are now understood to support dynamic regulation of the heartbeat across a range of timescales, during all stages of life, in both health and disease. This review article aims to summarize these concepts, with consideration given to emerging t-tubule regulators and their targeting in future therapies. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Holly A. Ingraham ◽  
Candice B. Herber ◽  
William C. Krause

The role of central estrogen in cognitive, metabolic, and reproductive health has long fascinated the lay public and scientists alike. In the last two decades, insight into estrogen signaling in the brain and its impact on female physiology is beginning to catch up with the vast information already established for its actions on peripheral tissues. Using newer methods to manipulate estrogen signaling in hormone-sensitive brain regions, neuroscientists are now identifying the molecular pathways and neuronal subtypes required to establish crucial sex differences in energy allocation. However, the immense cellular complexity of these hormone-sensitive brain regions makes it clear that more research is needed to fully appreciate how estrogen modulates neural circuits to regulate physiological and behavioral end points. Such insight is essential for understanding how natural or drug-induced hormone fluctuations across lifespan affect women's health. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jose A. Munoz ◽  
Anne-Catrin Uhlemann ◽  
Jonathan Barasch

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common type of urogenital disease. UTI affects the urethra, bladder, ureter, and kidney. A total of 13.3% of women, 2.3% of men, and 3.4% of children in the United States will require treatment for UTI. Traditionally, bladder (cystitis) and kidney (pyelonephritis) infections are considered independently. However, both infections induce host defenses that are either shared or coordinated across the urinary tract. Here, we review the chemical and biophysical mechanisms of bacteriostasis, which limit the duration and severity of the illness. Urinary bacteria attempt to overcome each of these defenses, complicating description of the natural history of UTI. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Ambre M. Bertholet ◽  
Yuriy Kirichok

Mitochondria of all tissues convert various metabolic substrates into two forms of energy: ATP and heat. Historically, the primary focus of research in mitochondrial bioenergetics was on the mechanisms of ATP production, while mitochondrial thermogenesis received significantly less attention. Nevertheless, mitochondrial heat production is crucial for the maintenance of body temperature, regulation of the pace of metabolism, and prevention of oxidative damage to mitochondria and the cell. In addition, mitochondrial thermogenesis has gained significance as a pharmacological target for treating metabolic disorders. Mitochondria produce heat as the result of H+ leak across their inner membrane. This review provides a critical assessment of the current field of mitochondrial H+ leak and thermogenesis, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms involved in the function and regulation of uncoupling protein 1 and the ADP/ATP carrier, the two proteins that mediate mitochondrial H+ leak. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Geneviève Marcelin ◽  
Emmanuel L. Gautier ◽  
Karine Clément

Obesity is a chronic and progressive process affecting whole-body energy balance and is associated with comorbidities development. In addition to increased fat mass, obesity induces white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation and fibrosis, leading to local and systemic metabolic dysfunctions, such as insulin resistance (IR). Accordingly, limiting inflammation or fibrosis deposition may improve IR and glucose homeostasis. Although no targeted therapy yet exists to slow or reverse adipose tissue fibrosis, a number of findings have clarified the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. In this review, we highlight adipose tissue remodeling events shown to be associated with fibrosis deposition, with a focus on adipose progenitors involved in obesity-induced healthy as well as unhealthy WAT expansion. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Heather N. Turner ◽  
Emily R. Liman

Sour taste, the taste of acids, is one of the most enigmatic of the five basic taste qualities; its function is unclear and its receptor was until recently unknown. Sour tastes are transduced in taste buds on the tongue and palate epithelium by a subset of taste receptor cells, known as type III cells. Type III cells express a number of unique markers, including the PKD2L1 gene, which allow for their identification and manipulation. These cells respond to acid stimuli with action potentials and release neurotransmitters onto afferent nerve fibers, with cell bodies in geniculate and petrosal ganglia. Here, we review classical studies of sour taste leading up to the identification of the sour receptor as the proton channel, OTOP1. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Arianne Papa ◽  
Jared Kushner ◽  
Steven O. Marx

Each heartbeat is initiated by the action potential, an electrical signal that depolarizes the plasma membrane and activates a cycle of calcium influx via voltage-gated calcium channels, calcium release via ryanodine receptors, and calcium reuptake and efflux via calcium-ATPase pumps and sodium-calcium exchangers. Agonists of the sympathetic nervous system bind to adrenergic receptors in cardiomyocytes, which, via cascading signal transduction pathways and protein kinase A (PKA), increase the heart rate (chronotropy), the strength of myocardial contraction (inotropy), and the rate of myocardial relaxation (lusitropy). These effects correlate with increased intracellular concentration of calcium, which is required for the augmentation of cardiomyocyte contraction. Despite extensive investigations, the molecular mechanisms underlying sympathetic nervous system regulation of calcium influx in cardiomyocytes have remained elusive over the last 40 years. Recent studies have uncovered the mechanisms underlying this fundamental biologic process, namely that PKA phosphorylates a calcium channel inhibitor, Rad, thereby releasing inhibition and increasing calcium influx. Here, we describe an updated model for how signals from adrenergic agonists are transduced to stimulate calcium influx and contractility in the heart. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Sai P. Pydi ◽  
Luiz F. Barella ◽  
Lu Zhu ◽  
Jaroslawna Meister ◽  
Mario Rossi ◽  
...  

β-Arrestin-1 and -2 (also known as arrestin-2 and -3, respectively) are ubiquitously expressed cytoplasmic proteins that dampen signaling through G protein–coupled receptors. However, β-arrestins can also act as signaling molecules in their own right. To investigate the potential metabolic roles of the two β-arrestins in modulating glucose and energy homeostasis, recent studies analyzed mutant mice that lacked or overexpressed β-arrestin-1 and/or -2 in distinct, metabolically important cell types. Metabolic analysis of these mutant mice clearly demonstrated that both β-arrestins play key roles in regulating the function of most of these cell types, resulting in striking changes in whole-body glucose and/or energy homeostasis. These studies also revealed that β-arrestin-1 and -2, though structurally closely related, clearly differ in their metabolic roles under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. These new findings should guide the development of novel drugs for the treatment of various metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes and obesity. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


2021 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Lisa K. Torres ◽  
Peter Pickkers ◽  
Tom van der Poll

Sepsis is expected to have a substantial impact on public health and cost as its prevalence increases. Factors contributing to increased prevalence include a progressively aging population, advances in the use of immunomodulatory agents to treat a rising number of diseases, and immune-suppressing therapies in organ transplant recipients and cancer patients. It is now recognized that sepsis is associated with profound and sustained immunosuppression, which has been implicated as a predisposing factor in the increased susceptibility of patients to secondary infections and mortality. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of sepsis-induced immunosuppression and biomarkers that identify a state of impaired immunity. We also highlight immune-enhancing strategies that have been evaluated in patients with sepsis, as well as therapeutics under current investigation. Finally, we describe future challenges and the need for a new treatment paradigm, integrating predictive enrichment with patient factors that may guide the future selection of tailored immunotherapy. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


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