Service failures as triggers of superior brand evaluations

In pursuit of better purchasing decisions (e.g., choosing the right restaurant or hotel), prospective customers increasingly turn to social media, such as Facebook, to source information about new products, services and brands. On Facebook, a brand’s former, current and potential customers are not only exposed to marketer-created brand postings, but also to other customers’ subjective evaluations, personal thoughts and feelings regarding their consumption experiences (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2010). Research has shown that consumers strive for multifaceted goals when sharing consumption-related postings online. For instance, some satisfied customers want to help the company by posting favorable statements about a positive brand experiences, known as positive electronic word of mouth or PeWOM (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2004), while others want to help their fellow shoppers by giving a neutral description of a regular brand experience (ReWOM). However, many dissatisfied customers also use Facebook brand-pages as a public platform to express their unfavorable thoughts and negative emotions (e.g., anger) after a service failure by means of an online complaint or negative electronic word of mouth (NeWOM; Ward & Ostrom, 2006; Weitzl et al., 2018). Consumers that are directly affected by the service failure and involved in the recovery process are referred to as complainants. The reasons why customers spread NeWOM are diverse. They range from venting (i.e., lessening his/her frustration and reduce anger), via revenge (i.e., intentionally sabotaging and harming the company; Grégoire et al., 2009), warning others (Willemsen et al., 2011), to advice seeking (to acquire new skills/information to better use and/or repair the product; Willemsen et al, 2013). Earlier research demonstrates that online complaints can have strong and diverse detrimental effects, particularly on a brand’s potential customers (so-called online complaint bystanders), including unfavorable attitudes and an increased willingness to criticize the involved brand to others (e.g., Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2006; Sen & Lerman, 2007). However, evidence also exists that ‘webcare’, which is company’s online complaint handling response to a public complaint can repair negative reactions of these bystanders to some extent (e.g., Weitzl & Hutzinger, 2017). It remains, nevertheless, unclear how far such positive reactions can be stimulated with webcare among NeWOM bystanders.

E communication in crisis communication Best practice for tourism destination management organizations

The role of crisis communication is becoming increasingly important in disaster management, especially considering the impact that disasters can have on the image and reputation of tourist destinations. Although the literature has begun to focus on this topic in recent years, the greater number of natural disasters and the impact of new media communication tools, make this theme particularly interesting for further scholarly investigation. Developing an effective crisis communication strategy requires consideration of the role that local authorities, including destination management organizations (DMOs) play, the channels they use, and the content that should be included. Numerous authors have analyzed this issue from a chronological perspective in terms of the difference phases of a crisis starting from preparation and ending with recovery. However, a series of strategic requirements emerge alongside these phases for successful crisis management, including: - Cooperation with the media in providing information to the public; in particular, imparting a consistent message to all stakeholders to build credibility and preserve the image of organizations and destinations. - Preparedness and the capacity to plan an effective communication response to a crisis in advance, paying attention to the specific characteristics of each case. - The development of a public relations plan that creates a support network for the dissemination of communication across multiple channels facilitated by the web and Information Communications Technologies (ICTs).

When two worlds collide Branding industrial destinations

Many parts of the world are increasingly faced with the pressure to accommodate activities of various, and at times, conflicting functions (Holmes, 2006; Lai et al., 2017; Woods 2012). Areas rich in natural resources are often not only conducive to the development of industrial activities, such as mining, energy development, and manufacturing. The natural and socio-economic landscapes they host may also be promoted as assets attractive to tourists seeking unique, authentic, and/or educational tourism experiences (Beer et al., 2017; de Sousa & Kastenholz, 2015; Frantál & Urbánková, 2017). Tourism has been commonly used as a tool to support economic development or regeneration in rural areas and industrial cities (Lane & Kastenholz, 2015; Petrzelka et al., 2006). When an area’s industrial activities are in decline and/or fall short in supporting its economy, tourism can provide a supplementary or alternative model to the existing industrial-based economy.

The road to recovery Reimagining Kaikoura after a natural disaster

It is widely recognized that tourist destinations are vulnerable to disruptions caused by natural disasters, and understanding tourism response and recovery to natural disasters is a critical topic of research internationally (Mair et al., 2016). Post-disaster recovery is defined as: “the development and implementation of strategies and actions to bring the destination back to a normal (pre-event) condition or an improved state” (Mair et al., 2016: 2). Recovery may commence immediately following a crisis or disaster, or can be delayed if a destination has been considerably damaged and residents and businesses profoundly affected. Scott et al. (2008) have suggested that the disaster recovery process contains three phases – recovery of damaged infrastructure, marketing responses (revolving around communication and recovery marketing), and adaptations to the new system. These phases may occur sequentially or simultaneously, with different stakeholder groups managing them (Mair et al., 2016).

Introduction

Tourism has always been impacted by crises and disasters, and no tourism destination is exempt (Beirman, 2006). Tourism is particularly susceptible to natural disasters (hurricanes, earthquakes and bushfires amongst others), which can cause sudden and immediate damage and destruction to destinations and their infrastructure, as well as longer terms issues with reduced visitor arrivals, leading to knock-on employment problems (Huang et al., 2008). However, there are other types of man-made crises that can also affect the tourism industry, including the actual or perceived threat of terrorism or political instability within a destination. Additionally, while some crises may affect entire destinations, others are more specific, affecting only particular industry sectors or organisations. Finally, not all challenges for destination marketers arise suddenly. Many destinations struggle to attract tourists because they are perceived to be unattractive for some reason, perhaps as a result of the long-running presence of heavy industry. The common thread linking these various crises, disasters and challenges is the unfortunate effect that they have on the reputation and image of the destination or organisation involved. Faulkner (2001: 136) defined a disaster as “a situation where an enterprise or a destination is confronted with sudden unpredictable catastrophic changes over which it has little control”. A crisis, on the other hand, is considered to be “a situation where the root cause of an event is, to some extent, self-inflicted through such problems as inept management structures and practices or a failure to adapt to change” (Faulkner 2001, p.136). However, while there is an academic distinction between the term ‘crisis’ and ‘disaster’, they are often used interchangeably and in this book, both terms will be used.

Hope for Haiti How media narratives can transform a destination in despair

Haiti has been beset by a series of natural disasters over the past decade, notably the 2010 7.0 magnitude Haiti Earthquake and Hurricane Matthew in 2016, which caused catastrophic flooding. However, in addition to the natural disasters, Haiti is the poorest economy in the western hemisphere and has a history of politically turbulent events, each of which have contributed to despair and a negative destination image (Séraphin, 2018; Séraphin et al., 2017). This is a troubling combination for a tourist destination. Haiti, as a destination in the Caribbean, has a strategic advantage with its expansive coast and natural attractions, but the underdevelopment of tourism in Haiti is linked to shadows of natural disasters, economic dependence on foreign aid and political uncertainty (see Séraphin et al., 2017; Wise and Díaz-Garayúa, 2015). The power of nature has placed much media attention on Haiti, and it has gained much negative attention in recent years in the media, but the images of a ‘beautiful destination’ is now changing the narrative to a destination on the rise (Caribbean News Now, 2017a; The World Bank, 2018). However, tourism in a developing country comes with numerous obstacles, as extensive investments are needed to allow tourism to thrive in the increasingly competitive Caribbean market. This is where the media plays a crucial role in transforming how a destination is portrayed. This chapter will assess narratives sourced from newspaper travel articles published in 2017 to understand how presentations of tourism in Haiti are constructing a new image of the country as an emerging tourism destination—an attempt to overcome the range of negative connotations. However, while the chapter focuses on image recovery in relation to the recent natural disasters in Haiti, it must also be noted that Haiti is also a destination with longstanding image issues given the extent of poverty, violence and political corruption (Séraphin, 2018).

Managing the reputation of cruise lines in times of crisis A review of current practices

Serving as both a luxury hotel and a traveling city, the cruise line industry acts as one of the fastest growing sectors within the tourism and hospitality industry. With a 62% growth in demand from 2005 to 2015, the cruise line industry expects to welcome 28 million global passengers on board (Cruise Line International Association [CLIA], 2018). According to CLIA (2018), the top five source markets of the global cruise industry are the United States (11.5 million passengers in 2016), China (2.1 million passengers in 2016), Germany (2 million passengers in 2016), United Kingdom (1.9 million passengers in 2016), and Australia (1.3 million passengers in 2016). Although the United States ranks as one of the most important markets for the cruise industry, the number of domestic cruise line companies remains relatively small, which is due to the necessity of obtaining substantial capital investment, and the intense competition (Ryschka et al., 2016). Within such a competitive market, reputation has become one of the key assets that cruise line companies cannot simply overlook (Weaver, 2005). Reputation refers to “the prestige or status of a product of service, as perceived by the purchaser, based on the image of the supplier” (Petrick, 2002:125). Reputation helps distinguish a particular brand from others as well as affecting peoples’ attitude, perceptions, and purchasing intentions (Petrick 2002, 2011; Weaver, 2005). The strong relationship between reputation and consumer decisions and behaviors has been well reported by numerous empirical studies, including both the general marketing literature (e.g. Olshavsky & Granbois, 1979) and the cruise tourism literature (e.g. Perick, 2002, 2011).

Reputation and perceived resilience in developing countries bidding for major sports events

Increasingly, international sports events (ISEs) are viewed as attractive opportunities for developing nations seeking to enhance their global profile in terms of both global prestige, economic development, and tourism (Chappelet & Parent, 2015; Shipway & Fyall, 2012). From a resilience perspective, the dimension of changing host locations, often due to the increasingly competitive bidding agenda of many host cities and nations, represents a significant proposition that has major implications with regards to the resilience of such events, in terms of crisis and disaster management. As such, changing host locations, from a resilience perspective, requires not only attention to the capacity of sports venues and infrastructure to absorb shocks and still maintain function, but to also include the propensity to facilitate adaptation, renewal and even re-organisation (Shipway, 2018). Whether these are natural disasters or man-made terrorist attacks, any disturbance creates an opportunity for both undertaking new actions (innovation), and for more effectively reacting to their onset (ongoing development) (Berkes et al., 2003; Holling, 1973; Gunderson 2000). Similarly, crisis management is influential in being an assessment of the ability of the country, including its emergency services, political elite, medical services, military and disaster management system to handle emergencies and/or disasters (Shipway & Miles, 2018).

Rubbish and reputation How unsustainable waste management impacts tourism

Tourism is recognised as having a two-way relationship with the environment (Halleux, 2017). On the positive side, many tourists are attracted to destinations to experience product attributes such as cultural heritage, flora and fauna, sea and sand. Implicitly, sustainability practices and maintaining the destination’s environmental integrity are critical to this form of tourism (Ecorys, 2013). On the darker side, however, it is recognised that tourism places significant pressure on a destination’s natural environment through pollution, ecosystem degradation and additional strain on natural resources (Weston et al., 2016). Thus, many tourist destinations have reputations that are intrinsically linked to their management of the environment and potentially negative product attributes that can impact on the environment (such as garbage, waste and sewage) (Inversini et al., 2009). In this context, Fombrun et al.’s (1999:72) definition that reputation is considered as “a perceptual representation of a company’s [or destination’s] past actions and future prospects that describes the firm’s overall appeal to all of its key constituents when compared with other leading rivals” is applied in this chapter.

Managing media sensationalism in the event of an airline disaster

Airlines are a critical sector in the tourism industry. Progress in travel and mobility presents both opportunities and challenges to airline companies (Henderson, 2003). Airlines put a premium on the safety of travellers in their journey to and from destinations. They are meant to be prepared for potential disruptions to their operations. Airlines are, however, susceptible to certain tragic events that come without warning and bring fatal consequences (Fishman, 1999; Henderson, 2003). An airline crash is one of them. Causes of plane crashes vary from technical failure, manufacturing defects, extreme weather conditions, human error, or a combination of these. Post the September 11 World Trade Centre attacks, acts of terrorism are added to the list. Regardless of what causes a plane to crash, the unpredictability and high concentration of death and injury in a single event commonly lead to extreme grief and anger among members of the public (Gerken et al., 2016; Henderson, 2003). When a plane crashes, the host airline company encounters intense government, media and public scrutiny (Faulkner, 2001; Fishman, 1999; Henderson, 2003). Airline crashes provide an emotionally compelling as well as highly visual and textual media story (Vincent et al., 1997 cited in Fishman, 1999). Events surrounding an airline crash provide journalists and media practitioners with various narratives and perspectives that they can choose to use in writing stories about the incident. Media stories influence organisational reputation, which is defined as “collective representation of images of an organisation established over time” (Cornelissen, 2011:8). In media coverage of airline crashes, framing is a way for media practitioners to promote salient angles or storylines about the crash (Entman, 1993). It is critical for airline management to examine storylines about the airline crash because media reports influence stakeholder perceptions. Media reports of a plane crash provide audiences with “visible public expressions of approval or disapproval of [airlines] and their actions” (Valentini & Romenti, 2011:361). Therefore, effectively managing media in news reports of an airline crisis is crucial to an airline company to restore its reputation. An airline’s reputation influences travel decisions and thus impacts tourism and hospitality industry as a whole.