The Magnitude of Rapid Weight Loss and Rapid Weight Gain in Combat Sport Athletes Preparing for Competition: A Systematic Review

Rapid weight loss or “weight cutting” is a common but potentially harmful practice used in mixed martial arts competition. Following the official weigh-in, competitors refeed and rehydrate themselves in a process known as rapid weight gain (RWG) to realize a potential competitive advantage. While data from surveys and small series have indicated the majority of mixed martial arts athletes engage in rapid weight loss, there is a lack of officially collected data from sanctioning organizations describing its prevalence. The present investigation represents a summary of the data collected between December 2015 and January 2018 by the California State Athletic Commission. In total, 512 professional mixed martial artists (455 males and 57 females) were included. Of these, 503 (98%) athletes gained body mass between weigh-in and their bouts. Total RWG between weigh-in and competition was 5.5 ± 2.5 kg, corresponding to an 8.1% ± 3.6% body mass increase. Total RWG was 5.6 ± 2.5 kg (8.1% ± 3.6%) for males and 4.5 ± 2.3 kg (8.0% ± 3.8%) for females. More than one quarter of men and one third of women gained >10% body mass between weigh-in and competition. Athletes from leading international promotions gained more absolute, but not relative, body mass than those from regional promotions. Our findings indicate RWG is nearly ubiquitous in professional , with a similar prevalence in male and female athletes. Trends based on promotion suggest a larger magnitude of RWG in presumably more experienced and/or successful mixed martial artists from leading international promotions.

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Extreme Rapid Weight Loss and Rapid Weight Gain Observed in UK Mixed Martial Arts Athletes Preparing for Competition

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism ◽

10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0174 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 27 (2) ◽

pp. 122-129 ◽

Cited By ~ 32

Author(s):

Joseph John Matthews ◽

Ceri Nicholas

Keyword(s):

Weight Loss ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Body Mass ◽

Martial Arts ◽

Repeated Measures ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Rapid Weight Loss ◽

Mixed Martial Arts ◽

Rapid Weight Gain ◽

Repeated Measures Design

There is a lack of research documenting the weight-making practices of mixed-martial-arts (MMA) competitors. The purpose of the investigation was to quantify the magnitude and identify the methods of rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) in MMA athletes preparing for competition. Seven athletes (mean ± SD, age 24.6 ± 3.5 yrs, body mass 69.9 ± 5.7 kg, competitive experience 3.1 ± 2.2 yrs) participated in a repeated-measures design. Measures of dietary intake, urinary hydration status, and body mass were recorded in the week preceding competition. Body mass decreased significantly (p < .0005) from baseline by 5.6 ± 1.4 kg (8 ± 1.8%). During the RWG period (32 ± 1 hr) body mass increased significantly (p < .001) by 7.4 ± 2.8 kg (11.7 ± 4.7%), exceeding RWL. Mean energy and carbohydrate intake were 3176 ± 482 kcal・day-1 and 471 ± 124 g・day-1, respectively. At the official weigh-in 57% of athletes were dehydrated (1033 ± 19 mOsmol・kg-1) and the remaining 43% were severely dehydrated (1267 ± 47 mOsmol・kg-1). Athletes reported using harmful dehydration-based RWL strategies, including sauna (43%) and training in plastic suits (43%). Results demonstrated RWG greater than RWL, this is a novel finding and may be attributable to the 32 hr duration from weigh-in till competition. The observed magnitude of RWL and strategies used are comparable to those which have previously resulted in fatalities. Rule changes which make RWL impractical should be implemented with immediate effect to ensure the health, safety and wellbeing of competitors.

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Worth the Weight? Post Weigh-In Rapid Weight Gain is Not Related to Winning or Losing in Professional Mixed Martial Arts

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism ◽

10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0347 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 30 (5) ◽

pp. 357-361

Author(s):

Christopher Kirk ◽

Carl Langan-Evans ◽

James P. Morton

Keyword(s):

Weight Loss ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Body Mass ◽

Statistical Difference ◽

Bayes Factor ◽

Rapid Weight Loss ◽

Rapid Weight Gain ◽

Bayesian Analyses ◽

Martial Art ◽

First Time

Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 31) and losers (n = 31) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF10] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission, or decision for either in-competition BM (BF10 = 0.686, ω2 < 0.01) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.732, ω2 = 0.054). In conclusion, the authors report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. In addition, they also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1–2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact changes at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.

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Practices of Weight Regulation Among Elite Athletes in Combat Sports: A Matter of Mental Advantage?

Journal of Athletic Training ◽

10.4085/1062-6050-48.1.04 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 48 (1) ◽

pp. 99-108 ◽

Cited By ~ 40

Author(s):

Stefan Pettersson ◽

Marianne Pipping Ekström ◽

Christina M. Berg

Keyword(s):

Weight Loss ◽

The Internet ◽

Rapid Weight Loss ◽

Weight Regulation ◽

Combat Sports ◽

Combat Sport ◽

Weight Category ◽

National Team ◽

Common Notion ◽

Age Range

Context The combination of extensive weight loss and inadequate nutritional strategies used to lose weight rapidly for competition in weight-category sports may negatively affect athletic performance and health. Objective To explore the reasoning of elite combat-sport athletes about rapid weight loss and regaining of weight before competitions. Design Qualitative study. Setting With grounded theory as a theoretical framework, we employed a cross-examinational approach including interviews, observations, and Internet sources. Sports observations were obtained at competitions and statements by combat-sport athletes were collected on the Internet. Patients or Other Participants Participants in the interviews were 14 Swedish national team athletes (9 men, 5 women; age range, 18 to 36 years) in 3 Olympic combat sports (wrestling, judo, and taekwondo). Data Collection and Analysis Semistructured interviews with 14 athletes from the Swedish national teams in wrestling, judo, and taekwondo were conducted at a location of each participant's choice. The field observations were conducted at European competitions in these 3 sports. In addition, interviews and statements made by athletes in combat sports were collected on the Internet. Results Positive aspects of weight regulation other than gaining physical advantage emerged from the data during the analysis: sport identity, mental diversion, and mental advantage. Together and individually, these categories point toward the positive aspects of weight regulation experienced by the athletes. Practicing weight regulation mediates a self-image of being “a real athlete.” Weight regulation is also considered mentally important as a part of the precompetition preparation, serving as a coping strategy by creating a feeling of increased focus and commitment. Moreover, a mental advantage relative to one's opponents can be gained through the practice of weight regulation. Conclusions Weight regulation has mentally important functions extending beyond the common notion that combat-sport athletes reduce their weight merely to gain a physical edge over their opponents.

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Systematic review of the effects of pandemic confinements on body weight and their determinants

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114521000921 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-74

Author(s):

Moien AB Khan ◽

Preetha Menon ◽

Romona Govender ◽

Amal Samra ◽

Javaid Nauman ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Weight Loss ◽

Body Weight ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Unintended Consequences ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Physically Active ◽

Low Weight ◽

The Impact ◽

Control Study

Abstract Pandemics and subsequent lifestyle restrictions such as ‘lockdowns’ may have unintended consequences, including alterations in body weight. This systematic review assesses the impact of pandemic confinement on body weight and identifies contributory factors. A comprehensive literature search was performed in seven electronic databases and in gray sources from their inception until July 1st 2020 with an update in PubMed and Scopus on February 1st 2021. In total, 2,361 unique records were retrieved, of which 41 studies were identified eligible: 1 case control study, 14 cohort and 26 cross-sectional studies (469, 362 total participants). The participants ranged in age from 6–86 years. The proportion of female participants ranged from 37% to 100%. Pandemic confinements were associated with weight gain in 7.2%–72.4% of participants and weight loss in 11.1%–32.0% of participants. Weight gain ranged from 0.6 (±1.3) to 3.0 (±2.4) kg, and weight loss ranged from 2.0 (±1.4) to 2.9 (±1.5) kg. Weight gain occurred predominantly in participants who were already overweight or obese. Associated factors included increased consumption of unhealthy food with changes in physical activity and altered sleep patterns. Weight loss during the pandemic was observed in individuals with previous low weight, and those who ate less and were more physically active before lock down. Maintaining a stable weight was more difficult in populations with reduced income, particularly in individuals with lower educational attainment. The findings of this systematic review highlight the short-term effects of pandemic confinements.

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Dietary Patterns and Gestational Weight Gain and Postpartum Weight Loss: A NESR Systematic Review

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzab046_100 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 803-803

Author(s):

Ramkripa Raghavan ◽

Sharon M Donovan ◽

Kathryn Dewey ◽

Rachel Novotny ◽

Jamie Stang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Weight Loss ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Gestational Weight Gain ◽

Dietary Patterns ◽

Dietary Guidelines ◽

Processed Meat ◽

Gestational Weight ◽

Postpartum Weight ◽

The Relationship

Abstract Objectives To inform the 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, USDA and HHS identified important public health questions to be examined by the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. The Committee conducted 2 systematic reviews with support from USDA's Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review (NESR) team to answer the following questions: What is the relationship between dietary patterns (DP) consumed during 1) pregnancy and gestational weight gain (GWG)?, and 2) lactation and postpartum weight loss (PPWL)? Methods The Committee developed protocols that described how they would use NESR's systematic review methodology to examine the systematic review questions. NESR conducted a literature search and dual-screened the results using pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify articles published between Jan 2000 and Nov 2019. NESR extracted data and assessed risk of bias of included studies. The Committee synthesized the evidence, developed conclusion statements, and graded the strength of the evidence underlying the conclusion statements. Results Twenty-six articles were included in the GWG review and 1 article in the PPWL review. The GWG review included 5 RCTs and 21 prospective cohort studies. Two RCTs showed that a “beneficial” DP was associated with lower GWG. Thirteen of the 20 observational studies showed an association between DP and GWG. Although the DPs examined were characterized by different combinations of foods and beverages, the patterns consistently associated with lower GWG were higher in vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, and fish and lower in added sugars and red and processed meats. The PPWL review included only one RCT, which was limited by high attrition, issues with implementing the intervention, and lack of blinding. Conclusions Limited evidence suggests that certain DPs during pregnancy are associated with a lower risk of excessive GWG. These patterns are higher in vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, and fish, and lower in added sugar, and red and processed meat (Grade: Limited). Insufficient evidence is available to determine the relationship between DPs during lactation and PPWL (Grade: Grade Not Assignable). Funding Sources USDA, Food and Nutrition Service, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion.

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Infant formula feeding practices associated with rapid weight gain: A systematic review

Maternal and Child Nutrition ◽

10.1111/mcn.12602 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 14 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

Jessica Appleton ◽

Catherine Georgina Russell ◽

Rachel Laws ◽

Cathrine Fowler ◽

Karen Campbell ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Infant Formula ◽

Feeding Practices ◽

Formula Feeding ◽

Rapid Weight Gain

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Prevalence of Rapid Weight Loss Practices and Their Profiles Among Non-Elite Combat Athletes in Kuching, East Malaysia

Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism ◽

10.2478/pjst-2019-0003 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 26 (1) ◽

pp. 14-19

Author(s):

Whye Lian Cheah ◽

Myat Su Bo ◽

Winnie Anak Kana ◽

Nur Irdina Binti Mohd Tourisz ◽

Mohamad Arif Hadzimi Bin Ishak ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Weight Loss ◽

Adverse Effects ◽

Weight Control ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Average Weight ◽

Rapid Weight Loss ◽

Combat Sport ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Highest Weight ◽

And Training

AbstractIntroduction. Rapid Weight Loss (RWL) is a common practice in combat sports where weight is classified to ensure equitable competition in terms of strength and agility. This study aimed to investigate the profiles of non-elite combat athletes and their RWL practices.Material and methods. This research was a cross-sectional study conducted in Kuching, Sarawak. Data were collected using a validated self-administered dual-language questionnaire.Results. A total of 65 respondents participated in the study; two-thirds were male, and the majority were taekwondo athletes. About 66% of the respondents reported to have practised rapid weight loss, with average weight loss of 3.4 kg (SD = 1.90) and highest weight loss of 4.9 kg (SD = 3.16). The most common RWL methods used were exercising more (69.8%), gradual dieting (51.1%), and training in heated rooms (20.8%). Physical trainers and training colleagues were rated as persons having the most influence on the use of RWL by the respondents. The perceived adverse effects which were mentioned the most frequently by the respondents were fatigue (69.2%), decreased vigour (50.8%), and muscle cramps (46.2%). As for the type of combat sport practised, muay thai and jiu jitsu had the highest number of respondents who used RWL. There were significant differences in RWL practices depending on the influences of training colleagues, physicians/doctors, physical trainers, parents, dieticians, and former athletes as well as perceived adverse effects of RWL.Conclusions. The findings of the current study were observed to be similar to those of research involving elite combat sport athletes where the prevalence of RWL was reasonably high, with similar characteristics. A proper regulatory programme should be put in place to assist both the athletes and their coaches/trainers in implementing proper weight control.

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Reversal of Integrase Inhibitor- and Tenofovir Alafenamide-Related Weight Gain after Switching Back to Tenofovir DF/Emtricitabine/Efavirenz

Open Forum Infectious Diseases ◽

10.1093/ofid/ofab403 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

F Will Pohlman ◽

Kara S McGee ◽

Mehri McKellar

Keyword(s):

Weight Loss ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Antiretroviral Therapy ◽

Integrase Inhibitor ◽

Rapid Weight Loss ◽

Tenofovir Df ◽

Specific Factors ◽

Gain And Loss ◽

Tenofovir Alafenamide

Abstract We report a case of substantial weight gain in a virologically suppressed patient with HIV after changing his antiretroviral therapy from efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir DF to elvitegravir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide with subsequent rapid weight loss upon switching back. The role of antiretrovirals in weight gain and loss and patient- and HIV-specific factors are discussed.

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