Cytoskeleton Structure in Mouse Sperm and Testes After 30 Days of Hindlimb Unloading and 12 Hours of Recovery

Background/Aims: Changes in the external mechanical field result in cytoskeleton reorganization and the formation of adaptive patterns in different types of cells, including somatic cells and sex cells. The aim of this research was to study the protein and mRNA content of cytoskeletal and sperm-specific genes in the sperm and testis cells of mice. Methods: Mice were subjected to 30 days of antiorthostatic suspension to simulate weightlessness, followed by 12 h of recovery, while receiving essential phospholipids at a dosage of 500 mg/kg/day (30HSE and 30HSE+12h groups) or a similar dosage of a placebo (30HS and 30HS+12h groups). Accordingly, reference groups (CE group and C group) were formed. The total number and the percentage of motile spermatozoa were calculated using a Makler chamber. To analyze the number of viable spermatozoa and the permeability of their membranes, eosin staining was used as well as Diff-Quick for a morphological evaluation. Relative protein and mRNA content was estimated in a western blot and quantitative PCR assay, respectively. Results: The relative protein expression levels of actin (beta and gamma) and two alpha-actinin isoforms (1 and 4) remained constant in the sperm of all study groups, except for the 30HS+12h group, where the alpha-actinin-4 level was 13% higher than in the reference group (p < 0.1). In the testis cells, the relative actin isoform content was equivalent to that in the spermatozoa. However, in the testis cells, the ACTN1 mRNA content was 17% higher in the 30HS group than in the C group (p < 0.05), and decreased after 12 h of recovery. In contrast, the ACTN4 mRNA content was 20% lower in the 30HS group than in the reference group (p < 0.05) and increased after the 12-h recovery period. At the same time, in the group administered the essential phospholipids, the relative ACTN1 and ACTN4 mRNA content did not differ from those of the reference group. The relative beta-tubulin content was similar in the reference C group and the reference CE group, which was administered the essential phospholipids. In the 30HS and 30HS+12h groups, the beta-tubulin content decreased by 19% and 22% (p < 0.05), respectively, and they also decreased in the groups administered the essential phospholipids (30HSE and 30HSE+12h groups, by 27% and 33%, respectively, p < 0.05). In the testis tissue, the relative tubulin content did not change in any of the experimental groups. At the same time, the relative mRNA content of the genes encoding the studied cytoskeletal proteins increased, which may indicate the protein content was regulated mainly at the translational level. Conclusion: The spermogram parameters and the content of the sperm-specific proteins and the associated mRNAs revealed a decrease in the number of mature spermatozoa in mice suspended under conditions of weightlessness. Moreover, the decrease was prevented by the administration of essential phospholipids.

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Musculoskeletal Pain and Impact on Performance in Orchestra Musicians and Actors

Medical Problems of Performing Artists ◽

10.21091/mppa.2004.2009 ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 19 (2) ◽

pp. 55-61

Author(s):

K Engquist ◽

P Ørbaek ◽

K Jakobsson

Keyword(s):

Musculoskeletal Pain ◽

Odds Ratio ◽

Reference Group ◽

Study Groups ◽

Physical Work ◽

Prevalence Odds Ratio ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Body Regions ◽

Increased Risk ◽

The Impact

We studied the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain and its impact on performance in orchestra musicians and in a reference group of actors, who share the mental stress in a performance situation, but without having the physical work load from an instrument. Swedish musicians (n = 103) from symphony and chamber orchestras and actors (n = 106) participated in a cross-sectional questionnaire study. Musculoskeletal pain was assessed by a further developed Standardized Nordic Questionnaire. The impact of pain on performance (pain affecting playing capacity, decreased playing time, and change of technique) and trouble-related sick leave also was assessed. Pain intensity was assessed by visual analogue scales. Musculoskeletal pain in the neck and shoulders was the most frequently reported problem, with similar prevalence among musicians and actors, around 25% for present pain and 20% for chronic pain (1-year prevalence). Around 10% of the musicians and 5% of the actors reported pain in the hands. Oral pain was reported by 12% of the musicians and 18% of the actors. The number of affected body regions and the intensity of pain were similar in the study groups. The musicians had an increased risk for pain affecting playing capacity. For the neck, the prevalence odds ratio (POR) was 3.0 (95%CI 1.2-7.2; adjusted for age and gender). String instrumentalists had higher risk estimates than nonstring instrumentalists. A gender difference was not observed. Pain in the oral region affecting playing capacity was less common in musicians, with a prevalence odds ratio of 0.4 (95%CI 0.1-0.8). Even though the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain was similar in the two groups of performing artists, the consequences for the work situation were more serious among musicians.

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Early Life History of Fishes in the San Francisco Estuary and Watershed

Early Life History of Fishes in the San Francisco Estuary and Watershed ◽

10.47886/9781888569599.ch12 ◽

2004 ◽

Keyword(s):

San Francisco ◽

Chinook Salmon ◽

Reference Group ◽

Central Valley ◽

Study Groups ◽

San Francisco Estuary ◽

Study Group ◽

First Feeding ◽

Back Calculation ◽

Juvenile Chinook

Abstract.—We compared two approaches to back-calculation with otolith microstructure to develop a method for accurately estimating growth rates of juvenile fall-run Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in California’s Central Valley. Total otolith width was a strong determinant of fork length (FL) in linear regressions used to determine the y-intercept in the fish size–otolith size relationship in two study groups of Chinook salmon. The Fraser-Lee back-calculation model estimated FL at first feeding in both study groups that did not differ significantly from lengths of first-feeding Chinook salmon in a reference group. In comparison, the biological-intercept method produced back-calculated lengths that were significantly greater in one study group than lengths of first-feeding Chinook salmon in the reference group. Chinook salmon emergence dates, estimated from counts of daily growth increments beyond the first-feeding check, corresponded with observed emergence periods in the river and hatchery populations from which the study groups were sampled. Size-at-age relationships were well described by a power function in both study groups, where mean FL over time approached an apparent asymptote at approximately 80 mm after 90 d postemergence. Growth rate estimates, using back-calculated size from the Fraser-Lee model, averaged 0.50 mm/d in one study group and 0.43 mm/d in the other study group. These estimates fell within the range of previous growth rate estimates for juvenile Chinook salmon in Central Valley riverine, floodplain, and delta environments and were about 2.5 times higher on average than an estimate for the San Francisco Estuary and about 2.3 times lower on average than estimates from the Strait of Georgia. We discuss the utility of otolith microstructure to not only estimate growth rates, but also to reconstruct emergence-date distributions in cohorts of emigrating juvenile Chinook salmon for stock identification purposes.

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Asthma Control and Asthma Medication Use among Swedish Elite Endurance Athletes

Canadian Respiratory Journal ◽

10.1155/2018/4646852 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 2018 ◽

pp. 1-11 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Hampus Persson ◽

Anne Lindberg ◽

Nikolai Stenfors

Keyword(s):

Asthma Control ◽

Inhaled Corticosteroids ◽

Reference Group ◽

Medication Use ◽

Study Groups ◽

Asthma Medication ◽

Endurance Athletes ◽

Act Scores ◽

Asthma Control Test ◽

Long Acting

Background. Asthma is common in elite athletes. In this study, we examined the use of asthma medication and asthma control in endurance athletes in Sweden and compared the findings with those in a reference group of patients with asthma. Methods. The Asthma Control Test (ACT) and a questionnaire on asthma, respiratory symptoms, and medication use were posted to endurance athletes n=711 and the reference group of patients with asthma n=1026. Four hundred and sixty-nine athletes (66%) responded, of whom 141 (20%) reported physician-diagnosed asthma. In the reference group, 397 (39%) responded. Results. Seventy-seven percent of the athletes with asthma reported using asthma medication during the previous year; 39% used short/long-acting β2-agonists, 31% used inhaled corticosteroids, and 31% used both daily. According to the ACT scores, 19%, 24%, and 58% of athletes with asthma had uncontrolled, partially controlled, or well-controlled asthma, respectively. After adjustment, there was no difference in ACT scores or daily use of asthma medication between the study groups. Conclusions. Many endurance athletes had uncontrolled or partially controlled asthma, and one-third used inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting β2-agonists daily. Their adjusted ACT scores and use of asthma medication were similar to the values in the reference population.

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Mitochondrial Respiration in Drosophila Ovaries after a Full Cycle of Oogenesis under Simulated Microgravity

Current Issues in Molecular Biology ◽

10.3390/cimb43010015 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 43 (1) ◽

pp. 176-186

Author(s):

Irina V. Ogneva ◽

Maria A. Usik

Keyword(s):

Drosophila Melanogaster ◽

Oxygen Consumption ◽

Respiratory Chain ◽

Simulated Microgravity ◽

Fruit Fly ◽

Cytoskeletal Proteins ◽

Cellular Respiration ◽

Zero Gravity ◽

Female Reproductive System ◽

Essential Phospholipids

Studies of the function of the female reproductive system in zero gravity are urgent for the future exploration of deep space. Female reproductive cells, oocytes, are rich in mitochondria, which allow oocytes to produce embryos. The rate of cellular respiration was determined to assess the functional state of the mitochondrial apparatus in Drosophila melanogaster ovaries in which the full cycle of oogenesis took place under simulated microgravity. Since cellular respiration depends on the state of the cytoskeleton, the contents of the main cytoskeletal proteins were determined by Western blotting. To modulate the structure of the cytoskeleton, essential phospholipids were administered per os at a dosage of 500 mg/kg in medium. The results of this study show that after a full cycle of oogenesis under simulated microgravity, the rate of cellular respiration in the fruit fly ovaries increases, apparently due to complex II of the respiratory chain. At the same time, we did not find any changes in the area of oocytes or in the content of proteins in the respiratory chain. However, changes were found in the relative contents of proteins of the actin cytoskeleton. There were no changes of essential phospholipids and no increase in the rate of cellular respiration of the ovaries after exposure to simulated microgravity. However, in the control, the administration of essential phospholipids led to a decrease in the efficiency of oxygen consumption in the flies’ ovaries due to complexes IV–V.

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Organization of the Cytoskeleton in Ectopic Foci of the Endometrium with Rare Localization

Biomedicines ◽

10.3390/biomedicines9080998 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (8) ◽

pp. 998

Author(s):

Konstantin A. Toniyan ◽

Victoria V. Povorova ◽

Elena Yu. Gorbacheva ◽

Valery V. Boyarintsev ◽

Irina V. Ogneva

Keyword(s):

Actin Binding ◽

Dot Blot ◽

Expression Of Genes ◽

Its Gene ◽

Mrna Content ◽

Genes Encoding ◽

Extragenital Endometriosis ◽

Migration Potential ◽

Tubulin Content

(1) Background: Endometriosis is a common pathology of the female reproductive system, often accompanied by pain and decreased fertility. However, its pathogenesis has not been sufficiently studied regarding the role of the cytoskeleton. In this study, we describe two clinical cases involving rare localization of extragenital endometriosis (umbilicus) and compare them with genital endometriosis of different localization (ovaries and uterus), as well as eutopic endometrium obtained with separate diagnostic curettage without confirmed pathology. (2) Methods: The relative content of actin and tubulin cytoskeleton proteins was determined by Western blotting, and the expression of genes encoding these proteins was determined by RT-PCR in the obtained intraoperative biopsies. The content of 5hmC was estimated by dot blot experiments, and the methylase/demethylase and acetylase/deacetylase contents were determined. (3) Results: The obtained results indicate that the content of the actin-binding protein alpha-actinin1 significantly increased (p < 0.05) in the groups with endometriosis, and this increase was most pronounced in patients with umbilical endometriosis. In addition, both the mRNA content of the ACTN1 gene and 5hmC content increased. It can be assumed that the increase in 5hmC is associated with a decrease in the TET3 demethylase content. Moreover, in the groups with extragenital endometriosis, alpha- and beta-tubulin content was decreased (p < 0.05) compared to the control levels. (4) Conclusions: In analyzing the results, further distance of ectopic endometrial foci from the eutopic localization may be associated with an increase in the content of alpha-actinin1, probably due to an increase in the expression of its gene and an increase in migration potential. In this case, a favorable prognosis can be explained by a decrease in tubulin content and, consequently, a decrease in the rate of cell division.

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Key Results of International Randomized Open-Label Clinical Study of BCD-020 (rituximab biosimilar candidate) in Patients with B-Cell Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

Blood ◽

10.1182/blood.v124.21.5467.5467 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 124 (21) ◽

pp. 5467-5467 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Kamil Kaplanov ◽

Andrey Zaritskiy ◽

Sergey Alexeev ◽

Elena Volodicheva ◽

Alexander Loginov ◽

...

Keyword(s):

B Cell ◽

Hodgkin’S Lymphoma ◽

Reference Group ◽

Study Groups ◽

Main Group ◽

Hodgkin's Lymphoma ◽

Open Label ◽

Non Hodgkin’S Lymphoma ◽

Non Hodgkin's Lymphoma ◽

Ann Arbor

Abstract BCD-020 (Acellbia, rituximab biosimilar candidate) was shown to be highly similar to innovator rituximab (MabThera®/Rituxan®) in terms of its quality characteristics, in vitro biological activity, as well as toxicology and PK/PD characteristics in non-human primates. International multicenter comparative randomized open-label clinical study was carried out in a period from 2011 to 2013 and involved over 30 centers in Russia, Ukraine and India. Its methodology and design complies with current EMA guidelines on similar biological products containing monoclonal antibodies (EMA/CHMP/BMWP/403543/2010). 92 patients with follicular non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, stage I-IV by Ann Arbor, or marginal zone lymphoma, stage I-IV by Ann Arbor, ECOG 0-2, who had at least 1 measurable lesion were enrolled. According to study protocol patients with secondary transformed B-cell lymphomas or with highly aggressive types of tumor, bulky disease, severe concomitant somatic disorders and some other conditions were excluded. If a patient had previous story of chemotherapy or radiation he could be included after at least 3 weeks post-treatment. Participation of patients who were previously treated with any kind of monoclonal antibodies was prohibited. After signing standard informed consent form and completion of 28-days screening period eligible patients underwent stratification in accordance to their prognostic risk (FLIPI or IPI) and previous treatment (naïve or pretreated). Subsequently patients were randomized (1:1) into 2 groups: 46 patients were included in the main group where Acellbia (rituximab biosimilar) was administered at a dose of 375 mg/m2 as a slow IV infusion on day 1, 8, 15 and 22; 46 patients were included in the reference group where MabThera was used at the same regimen. Use of any other medicines for the treatment of lymphoma was strictly prohibited. Efficacy was assessed on the basis of computed tomography and bone marrow evaluation which were performed 1 month after the completion of treatment. Median age of patients in each group was 57.5 years (main group [50.0-64.0], reference group [47.0-65.0]). Manageable comorbidities were reported in 50% of patients in the main group and 34.78% of patients in the reference group, p=0.2053. Comparative analysis of the prognostic risk factors confirmed the equivalence of study groups. The number of pretreated patients in both groups was equal – 8 individuals per group. Statistical analysis didn’t find any difference in overall response rate in general population of patients (39.52% patients in the main group vs. 36.57% patients in the reference group, p=0.8250), as well as in population of pretreated patients (28.6% vs 37.5% respectively, p=1.00) and in population of naïve patients (42.8% vs 39.4% respectively, p=1.00). The lower limit of the two-tailed 95% CI for difference in proportions of ORR was equal to -0.17 and exceeded the predefined non-inferiority margin -0.2, which confirmed non-inferiority of Acellbia to MabThera in terms of efficacy. Treatment-associated AE of any grade were reported in 21.74% patients in both arms, in the absence of statistically or clinically significant difference (p = 0.8005). There were 2 cases of CTCAE 4.03 grade 3-4 AEs in each group. PK and PD parameters were shown to be equivalent in both study groups. Thus, study results suggest that Acellbia has same efficacy and safety in patients with B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Disclosures Chernyaeva: JCS BIOCAD: Employment. Ivanov:JCS BIOCAD: Employment. Isaev:JCS BIOCAD: Employment.

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Steady-State Visual-Evoked Potentials as a Biomarker for Concussion: A Pilot Study

Neurology ◽

10.1212/01.wnl.0000719920.91849.25 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 95 (20 Supplement 1) ◽

pp. S6.2-S7

Author(s):

Adrian Cohen ◽

Daryl Fong ◽

David Putrino ◽

Philip Boughton ◽

Joseph Herrera ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Steady State ◽

Evoked Potentials ◽

Visual Evoked Potentials ◽

Signal To Noise Ratio ◽

Point Of Care ◽

Recovery Period ◽

Study Groups ◽

Return To Play ◽

Competitive Games ◽

Visual Evoked

ObjectiveThis study aims to utilize a portable system capable of measuring steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) to investigate their use as an objective electrophysiologic biomarker for concussion.BackgroundThe most pressing issues in relation to sports related concussion (SRC) involves accurate and timely diagnosis, for a safe return to play criteria. Despite the vast range of tools available to help clinicians assess concussion, most are subjective, non-portable, and therefore non-ideal for unbiased application at the site and time of a suspected injury.Design/MethodsThis system applied a smartphone housed in a VR-frame delivering a 15-Hz flickering stimulus while a wireless electroencephalography (EEG) headset recorded EEG signals. Sixty-five male amateur rugby athletes (20.9 ± 2.3 years-old) were tested throughout a season and were stratified into healthy, concussed, and recovered groups based on clinical examinations pre- and post-competitive games. Players SSVEP responses was quantified into a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and summarized into respective study-groups for comparison of medians with 25th–75th interquartile range.ResultsAll sixty-five participants completed a baseline evaluation preseason. Twelve participants sustained a diagnosed concussion during the season and were retested within 72 h of injury. Eight concussed players received additional SSVEP testing following a 2-week recovery period. Concussed participants had a significantly lower SNR [2.20 (2.04–2.38)] when compared to their baseline [4.54 (3.79–5.10)]. When clinically recovered, participant SNR [4.82 (4.13–5.18)] was not significantly different to their baseline. Baseline SNR of concussed and non-concussed participants [4.80 (4.07–5.68)] did not significantly differ.ConclusionsThis is the first study to show that SSVEPs are significantly attenuated in the presence of concussion in male athletes. Concussed individuals' ability to generate SSVEP appear to recover following clinical recovery. The observations of this study indicate SSVEP have the potential to be a supplemental aid for the assessment and management of concussion at point-of-care.

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Influence of maternal hyperthyroidism in the rat on the expression of neuronal and astrocytic cytoskeletal proteins in fetal brain

Journal of Endocrinology ◽

10.1677/joe.0.1750597 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 175 (3) ◽

pp. 597-604 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

IM Evans ◽

MR Pickard ◽

AK Sinha ◽

AJ Leonard ◽

DC Sampson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Brain Function ◽

Fetal Brain ◽

Study Groups ◽

Immunoblot Analysis ◽

Maternal Serum ◽

Cytoskeletal Proteins ◽

Brain Weight ◽

Protein Abundance ◽

Differentiation Markers ◽

Osmotic Pumps

Maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy impairs brain function in human and rat offspring, but little is known regarding the influence of maternal hyperthyroidism on neurodevelopment. We have previously shown that the expression of neuronal and glial differentiation markers in fetal brain is compromised in hypothyroid rat dam pregnancies and have now therefore extended this investigation to hyperthyroid rat dams. Study groups comprised partially thyroidectomised dams, implanted with osmotic pumps infusing either vehicle (TX dams) or a supraphysiological dose of thyroxine (T4) (HYPER dams), and euthyroid dams infused with vehicle (N dams). Cytoskeletal protein abundance was determined in fetal brain at 21 days of gestation by immunoblot analysis. Relative to N dams, circulating total T4 levels were reduced to around one-third in TX dams but were doubled in HYPER dams. Fetal brain weight was increased in HYPER dams, whereas litter size and fetal body weight were reduced in TX dams. Glial fibrillary acidic protein expression was similar in HYPER and TX dams, being reduced in both cases relative to N dams. alpha-Internexin (INX) abundance was reduced in HYPER dams and increased in TX dams, whereas neurofilament 68 (NF68) exhibited increased abundance in HYPER dams. Furthermore, INX was inversely related to - and NF68 directly related to - maternal serum total T4 levels, independently of fetal brain weight. In conclusion, maternal hyperthyroidism compromises the expression of neuronal cytoskeletal proteins in late fetal brain, suggestive of a pattern of accelerated neuronal differentiation.

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Comparative study between conventional adenoidectomy and adenoidectomy using micro-debrider

The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology ◽

10.1186/s43163-021-00102-z ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 37 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Essam A. Abo Elmagd ◽

Mahmoud S. Khalifa ◽

Beshoy K. Abeskharoon ◽

Abdelrahman A. El Tahan

Keyword(s):

Pain Score ◽

Operative Time ◽

Recovery Period ◽

Study Groups ◽

Average Amount ◽

Left Behind ◽

Adenoid Tissue ◽

Group A ◽

The Mean ◽

Group B

Abstract Background Adenoidectomy is a common ENT procedure. This article aims to evaluate micro-debrider-assisted adenoidectomy as a substitute for the conventional curettage method. Results The study aimed to compare between two study groups: micro-debrider-assisted adenoidectomy (group A) and conventional adenoidectomy (group B). The average time needed in group A was 34.1 min while it was 22.83 min in group B (p<0.001). The average amount of blood lost in group A was 29.57 ml and 16.67 ml in group B (p<0.001). The resection was nearly complete in group A, while in group B, five (16.66%) cases had more than 50% of the adenoid tissue left behind. Four cases in group B had damage to collaterals while in group A no major injuries were noted. Postoperative pain has only been studied in cases where adenoidectomy solely was done. Candidates in group A (n=8) reported a pain score of 3.5-3.09 whereas candidates in group B (n=11) reported a pain score of 2.75-2.55. The mean recovery time was 2.8 days in group A and 8.23 days in group B (p<0.001). Conclusions Endoscopic adenoidectomy using micro-debrider is both an effective and safe adenoidectomy tool. The strengths of this technique include resection completeness, precise resection under vision, minor damage to collaterals, and a more rapid recovery period. Conventional adenoidectomy, however, scored better regarding lesser operative time and bleeding intraoperatively.

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Changes in the amounts of cytoskeletal proteins within the perikarya and axons of regenerating frog motoneurons.

The Journal of Cell Biology ◽

10.1083/jcb.96.1.240 ◽

1983 ◽

Vol 96 (1) ◽

pp. 240-247 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

D V Sinicropi ◽

D L McIlwain

Keyword(s):

Spinal Cord ◽

Skeletal Muscles ◽

Contralateral Side ◽

Cytoskeletal Proteins ◽

Beta Tubulin ◽

Alpha Tubulin ◽

Axonal Elongation ◽

Functional Consequences ◽

Neurofilament Polypeptides ◽

Ventral Roots

Changes in the amounts of tubulin, actin, and neurofilament polypeptides were found in regenerating motoneurons of grass frogs during the period of axonal elongation. Ventral roots 9 and 10 were transected unilaterally about 7 mm from the spinal cord. 35 d later, [3H]colchicine binding had decreased in the proximal stumps to approximately one-half of contralateral control values, well before the regenerating motor axons had reinnervated skeletal muscles of the hind limb. [3H]colchicine binding did not change significantly in the operated halves of the 9th and 10th spinal cord segments over a 75-d period. The relative amounts of actin, tubulin, and neurofilament polypeptides in the operated ventral roots were measured by quantitative densitometry of stained two-dimensional electrophoretic gels. Alpha-tubulin, beta-tubulin, and the 68,000 molecular weight subunit of neurofilaments (NF68) decreased within the transected ventral roots to 78%, 57%, and less than 15% of control values, respectively. The amount of actin increased to 132% of control values within the operated ventral roots, although this change was not statistically significant. Opposite changes were found within motoneuronal cell bodies isolated from the spinal cord. The relative amounts of alpha-tubulin, beta-tubulin and NF68 within axotomized perikarya increased, respectively, to 191%, 146%, and 144% of that in control perikarya isolated from the contralateral side of the spinal cord. Thus, the changes in NF68 and tubulin did not occur uniformly throughout the injured cells. The possible structural and functional consequences of these changes are discussed.

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