Female Masculinity at Work

2017 ◽  
Vol 41 (2) ◽  
pp. 197-209 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raine Dozier
Keyword(s):  
Sexual Orientation ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Positive Outcomes ◽  
Work Organizations ◽  
High Demand ◽  
Female Masculinity ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Opting Out ◽  
Male Dominated

In this study, the author interviewed 49 self-identified masculine women in the United States to examine how they negotiate stigma in the workplace. Masculine women often negotiate dual stigmas due to both their gender nonconformity and perceived sexual orientation. Participants used a variety of strategies to cope with their stigmatized identity including modifying clothing; incorporating feminine behaviors to counteract masculine appearance; working in high-demand, undesirable jobs; working in male-dominated settings; and opting out of formal work organizations. While some participants experienced mistreatment in male-dominated settings, many reported positive outcomes including strong relationships with male coworkers, opportunities for advancement, and a general comfort in the work environment. Participants challenge Goffman’s notion of sexual orientation as a concealable status, showing that sexual orientation minority women who are gender nonconforming employ strategies similar to members of other visibly stigmatized groups. Findings from this study suggest that researchers addressing sexual orientation minorities should include gender expression as a variable that can influence individual experiences and outcomes. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index .

Gender-Based Violence Against Transgender People in the United States: A Call for Research and Programming

2018 ◽  
Vol 21 (2) ◽  
pp. 227-241 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrea L. Wirtz ◽  
Tonia C. Poteat ◽  
Mannat Malik ◽  
Nancy Glass
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Social Stigma ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Gender Based Violence ◽  
Transgender People ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Gender Based ◽  
And Gender

Gender-based violence (GBV) is an umbrella term for any harm that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that results from power inequalities based on gender roles. Most global estimates of GBV implicitly refer only to the experiences of cisgender, heterosexually identified women, which often comes at the exclusion of transgender and gender nonconforming (trans) populations. Those who perpetrate violence against trans populations often target gender nonconformity, gender expression or identity, and perceived sexual orientation and thus these forms of violence should be considered within broader discussions of GBV. Nascent epidemiologic research suggests a high burden of GBV among trans populations, with an estimated prevalence that ranges from 7% to 89% among trans populations and subpopulations. Further, 165 trans persons have been reported murdered in the United States between 2008 and 2016. GBV is associated with multiple poor health outcomes and has been broadly posited as a component of syndemics, a term used to describe an interaction of diseases with underlying social forces, concomitant with limited prevention and response programs. The interaction of social stigma, inadequate laws, and punitive policies as well as a lack of effective GBV programs limits access to and use of GBV prevention and response programs among trans populations. This commentary summarizes the current body of research on GBV among trans populations and highlights areas for future research, intervention, and policy.

scholarly journals Male sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and neural activity during mental rotations: an fMRI study

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Monika Folkierska-Żukowska ◽  
Qazi Rahman ◽  
Artur Marchewka ◽  
Marek Wypych ◽  
Dawid Droździel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sexual Orientation ◽  
Mental Rotation ◽  
Gay Men ◽  
Sex Difference ◽  
Neural Correlates ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Angular Gyrus ◽  
Heterosexual Men ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Superior Frontal Gyrus

Abstract The cross-sex shift hypothesis predicts that gay men should perform more like heterosexual women on important neurocognitive tasks on which men score higher than women, such as mental rotation. Studies also suggest sex differences exist in the neural correlates of mental rotation. However, no studies have taken sexual orientation into account or considered within-group variation attributable to recalled gender nonconformity (a developmental trait reliably associated with human nonheterosexuality). We quantified the neural correlates of mental rotation by comparing two groups of gay men, gender conforming (n = 23) and gender nonconforming (n = 23), to gender conforming heterosexual men (n = 22) and women (n = 22). We observed a sex difference between heterosexual men and women in the premotor cortex/supplementary motor cortex and left medial superior frontal gyrus. We also observed a sex difference as well as a cross-sex shift in gay men who recalled being gender nonconforming as children in the right superior frontal gyrus, right angular gyrus, right amygdala/parahippocampal gyrus, and bilaterally in the middle temporal gyrus and precuneus. Thus, cross-sex shifts may be associated with underlying developmental factors which are associated with sexual orientation (such as gender nonconformity). The results also suggest that gay men should not be studied as a homogenous group.

Does Sexual Orientation Precede Childhood Sexual Abuse? Childhood Gender Nonconformity as a Risk Factor and Instrumental Variable Analysis

Sexual Abuse ◽  
2015 ◽  
Vol 29 (8) ◽  
pp. 786-802 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yin Xu ◽  
Yong Zheng
Keyword(s):  
Sexual Abuse ◽  
Sexual Orientation ◽  
Childhood Sexual Abuse ◽  
Instrumental Variable ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Instrumental Variable Analysis ◽  
Childhood Gender ◽  
Childhood Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Variable Analysis

Research suggests that there is a relation between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adulthood nonheterosexual orientation. To explore whether nonheterosexual orientation increases the risk of CSA, we recruited a large sample, added the variable of childhood gender nonconformity (CGNC), and applied the instrumental variable method. We found that heterosexual and nonheterosexual men who were more gender nonconforming in childhood were significantly more likely to report having a history of CSA than their gender-conforming counterparts. There was no relation between CSA and CGNC for heterosexual and nonheterosexual women. The instrumental variable analysis revealed that the increased prevalence of CSA experienced by nonheterosexuals compared with heterosexuals may be due to the influence of sexual orientation on CSA. In sum, the results suggest that nonheterosexuality may increase the risk of childhood sexual abuse.

Litigating Transgender Employment Rights in the United States

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susan Gluck Mezey
Keyword(s):  
Gender Identity ◽  
Sex Discrimination ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Title Vii ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Per Se ◽  
The Law ◽  
Employment Rights

Discrimination against transgender or gender nonconforming individuals in the workplace affects hiring, firing, promotions, salaries, and benefits. Most states have no laws prohibiting employment discrimination based on gender identity, and, in the absence of federal law, transgender workers have turned to the courts to seek equal rights on the job. Transgender plaintiffs often file suit under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the law prohibiting sex discrimination in employment. The defendants argue that since the statute does not explicitly ban discrimination on the basis of gender identity, Congress did not intend to include transgender or gender nonconforming individuals as members of a class protected by Title VII. The cases revolve around the question of whether the ban on sex discrimination in the law should be narrowly construed to apply to men and women as determined by their biological status or whether it should be broadly construed to prohibit discrimination against individuals because of their gender identity or gender expression. Prior to 1989, suits brought by transgender plaintiffs were dismissed by judges who agreed with employers that Congress did not intend Title VII to guarantee their employment rights. In Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989), the Supreme Court held that the statute forbids an employer from making a negative employment decision because an employee’s behavior does not conform to stereotypical norms of behavior. Hopkins set the stage for the next several decades of litigation over the employment rights of transgender employees, and, although the courts were initially reluctant to allow transgender plaintiffs to benefit from Title VII, within a few years, most broadened their interpretation of the law. Over time, the courts adopted two theories: first, the gender nonconformity approach in which discrimination based on sex stereotyping violates Title VII; second, the per se approach in which discrimination on the basis of gender identity is equated with discrimination under Title VII. In 2012, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) adopted both theories of Title VII in Macy v. Holder (2012). In 2014, the Justice Department formally committed itself to interpreting Title VII to apply to gender identity. In October 2017, the department shifted its position on Title VII, negating the per se theory of gender identity and emphasizing that the statute only applies to employer actions based on biological differences between men and women. In addition to Title VII claims, transgender plaintiffs have filed job discrimination actions under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the law prohibiting discrimination against individuals because of their disabilities. Although the statute explicitly excludes gender identity disorder, two federal district courts have interpreted it to cover transgender persons with disabilities, with a third disagreeing. Tying claims to the ADA has benefits as well as drawbacks.

Midwestern Misfits

2017 ◽  
Vol 51 (3) ◽  
pp. 318-338 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. Alexandra Marshall ◽  
M. Kathryn Allison
Keyword(s):  
School Climate ◽  
Ecological Model ◽  
Common Factor ◽  
The United States ◽  
Qualitative Inquiry ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Homophobic Bullying ◽  
And Gender ◽  
Context Shapes

Perceived sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth experience more bullying in schools than their heteronormative peers. The social ecological model offers a framework for exploring the phenomenon of homophobic bullying. This study aimed to describe experiences of victimized youth. Using critical qualitative inquiry, youth ( N = 16) of ages 15 to 20 who self-identified as having been bullied for being perceived to be SGM and who resided in a Midwestern state in the United States were interviewed in-person or online. Thematic analysis revealed that gender nonconformity was a common factor in being bullied. Subthemes are as follows: the sociocultural context shapes school climate; victimized youth felt a perception of being seen as deviant; and, victimized youth react to victimization differently. Findings indicate that bullying for gender nonconformity is a sociocultural issue. Improving the school climate for gender nonconforming youth is still needed. Implementing supportive programs and protective policies at the broader socioecological levels can help.

The Empire of Disgust

2018 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Drinking Water ◽  
Sexual Orientation ◽  
Change Point ◽  
Minority Groups ◽  
The United States ◽  
Political Life ◽  
Swimming Pools ◽  
Economic Class ◽  
Group Resistance

All known societies exclude and stigmatize one or more minority groups. Frequently these exclusions are underwritten with a rhetoric of disgust: people of a certain group, it is alleged, are filthy, hyper-animal, or not fit to share such facilities as drinking water, food, and public swimming pools with the ‘clean’ and ‘fully human’ majority. But exclusions vary in their scope and also in the specific disgust-ideologies underlying them. In this volume, interdisciplinary scholars from the United States and India present a detailed comparative study of the varieties of prejudice and stigma that pervade contemporary social and political life: prejudice along the axes of caste, race, gender, age, sexual orientation, transgender, disability, religion, and economic class. In examining these forms of stigma and their intersections, the authors present theoretically pluralistic and empirically sensitive accounts that both explain group-based stigma and suggest ways forward. These forward-looking remedies, including group resistance to subordination as well as institutional and legal change, point the way towards a public culture that is informed by our diverse histories of discrimination and therefore equipped to eliminate stigma in all of its multifaceted forms.

The Interplay of Developing Morality and Gender Attitudes

2020 ◽  
pp. 724-745
Author(s):  
Rebecca S. Bigler ◽  
Lynn S. Liben
Keyword(s):  
Psychological Theory ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Nonconformity ◽  
Gender Attitudes ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Policy And Practice ◽  
Ethical Policy ◽  
History Of ◽  
And Gender ◽  
And Behavior

Morality and gender are intersecting realms of human thought and behavior. Reasoning and action at their intersection (e.g., views of women’s rights legislation) carry important consequences for societies, communities, and individual lives. In this chapter, the authors argue that children’s developing views of morality and gender reciprocally shape one another in important and underexplored ways. The chapter begins with a brief history of psychological theory and research at the intersection of morality and gender and suggests reasons for the historical failure to view gender attitudes through moral lenses. The authors then describe reasons for expecting morality to play an important role in shaping children’s developing gender attitudes and, reciprocally, for gender attitudes to play an important role in shaping children’s developing moral values. The authors next illustrate the importance and relevance of these ideas by discussing two topics at the center of contentious debate in the United States concerning ethical policy and practice: treatment of gender nonconformity and gender-segregated schooling. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.

scholarly journals How Gender Identity and Transgender Status Affect Perceptions of Attractiveness

2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (6) ◽  
pp. 811-822 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessica M. Mao ◽  
M. L. Haupert ◽  
Eliot R. Smith
Keyword(s):  
Sexual Orientation ◽  
Gender Identity ◽  
Theoretical Models ◽  
Gender Attitudes ◽  
Heterosexual Men ◽  
Transgender People ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Gender Nonconforming ◽  
Romantic Attraction ◽  
Identity Labels

Can a perceiver’s belief about a target’s transgender status (distinct from gender nonconforming appearance) affect perceptions of the target’s attractiveness? Cisgender, heterosexual men and women ( N = 319) received randomly assigned labels (cisgender cross-gender, transgender man, transgender woman, or nonbinary) paired with 48 cross-sex targets represented by photos and rated the attractiveness and related characteristics of those targets. The gender identity labels had a strong, pervasive effect on ratings of attraction. Nonbinary and especially transgender targets were perceived as less attractive than cisgender targets. The effect was particularly strong for male perceivers, and for women with traditional gender attitudes. Sexual and romantic attraction are not driven solely by sexed appearance; information about gender identity and transgender status also influences these assessments. These results have important implications for theoretical models of sexual orientation and for the dating lives of transgender people.

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