Estimating the consequences of an explosion on critical infrastructure

The study is an analysis estimating the threat arising from the detonation products of a condensed explosive on the physical environment. It presents an analysis of fundamental detonation properties such as detonation height and Mach wave formation, related to their loading effects on critical infrastructure. Analytical equations as well as modelling were investigated to predict the effects of explosive loading on surroundings and people. Comparisons were made between the results from calculations with those of the equations, based on approximated experimental data. It was concluded that when applying the JWL equation of state to the reaction products of TNT, good agreement was obtained between modeling and experimental results for the detonation energy derived with the aid of thermodynamic calculations.

COMPUTER MODELING OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUMS IN WO3–H2O SYSTEM

Energy Technologies & Resource Saving ◽

10.33070/etars.4.2017.06 ◽

2017 ◽

pp. 35-48 ◽

Author(s):

V.P. Bondarenko ◽

O.O. Matviichuk

Keyword(s):

Transition Temperature ◽

Gas Phase ◽

Single Phase ◽

Reference Data ◽

Maximum Amount ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Influence Of Temperature ◽

Equilibrium Chemical ◽

Program Data ◽

Detail investigation of equilibrium chemical reactions in WO3–H2O system using computer program FacktSage with the aim to establish influence of temperature and quantity of water on formation of compounds of H2WO4 and WO2(OH)2 as well as concomitant them compounds, evaporation products, decomposition and dissociation, that are contained in the program data base were carried out. Calculations in the temperature range from 100 to 3000 °С were carried out. The amount moles of water added to 1 mole of WO3 was varied from 0 to 27. It is found that the obtained data by the melting and evaporation temperatures of single-phase WO3 are in good agreement with the reference data and provide additionally detailed information on the composition of the gas phase. It was shown that under heating of 1 mole single-phase WO3 up to 3000 °С the predominant oxide that exist in gaseous phase is (WO3)2. Reactions of it formation from other oxides ((WO3)3 and (WO3)4) were proposed. It was established that compound H2WO4 is stable and it is decomposed on WO3 and H2O under 121 °C. Tungsten Oxide Hydrate WO2(OH)2 first appears under 400 °С and exists up to 3000 °С. Increasing quantity of Н2О in system leads to decreasing transition temperature of WO3 into both liquid and gaseous phases. It was established that adding to 1 mole WO3 26 mole H2O maximum amount (0,9044–0,9171 mole) WO2(OH)2 under temperatures 1400–1600 °С can be obtained, wherein the melting stage of WO3 is omitted. Obtained data also allowed to state that that from 121 till 400 °С WO3–Н2O the section in the О–W–H ternary system is partially quasi-binary because under these temperatures in the system only WO3 and Н2O are present. Under higher temperatures WO3–Н2O section becomes not quasi-binary since in the reaction products WO3 with Н2O except WO3 and Н2O, there are significant amounts of WO2(OH)2, (WO3)2, (WO3)3, (WO3)4 and a small amount of atoms and other compounds. Bibl. 12, Fig. 6, Tab. 5.

The Detonation Properties of Combined Effects Explosives

MRS Proceedings ◽

10.1557/opl.2012.22 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 1405 ◽

Author(s):

Paul Anderson ◽

Paula Cook ◽

Wendy Balas-Hummers ◽

Andy Davis ◽

Kyle Mychajlonka

Keyword(s):

Design Of Experiments ◽

Mechanical Energy ◽

Statistical Design ◽

Detonation Properties ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Statistical Design Of Experiments ◽

Gaseous Reaction ◽

Proper Formulation ◽

Copper Cylinder ◽

Aluminum Consumption

ABSTRACTIn development of new explosives, it is often necessary to balance a number of attributes in performance while certain formulation constraints exist. Statistical design of experiments (DOE) is a valuable tool for rapid formulation optimization and minimization of costly and hazardous testing. During the development of metal-loaded explosives designed for enhanced blast, it was discovered that upon proper formulation, aluminum additives obtained full reaction by 7 volume expansions, which resulted in extremely high Gurney energies equivalent to LX-14 and PBXN-5 but with lower loading of nitramines. The early aluminum oxidation can be described by Eigenvalue type detonations, where the fully reacted Hugoniot of the condensed phase aluminum oxide and explosive products lies below the unreacted aluminum Hugoniot. Such an analysis describes fully the agreement of aluminum consumption by 7 volume expansions from 1-inch copper cylinder expansion tests and an analytic cylinder model, as well as detonation calorimetry. With the early reaction of aluminum also comes a shift in the gaseous reaction products to higher enthalpy species such as CO and H2, leading to further augmentation of blast. Thus, both the mechanical energy (for fragmentation or “metal pushing”) and blast (for structural targets) are available in a single explosive fill. This provides capability for combined metal pushing and blast in a single explosive that was not previously possible. Development of such explosives and the importance of modern statistical design of experiments will be shared.

States in 152Sm populated by the (t,α) reaction

Canadian Journal of Physics ◽

10.1139/p77-152 ◽

1977 ◽

Vol 55 (13) ◽

pp. 1137-1144 ◽

Cited By ~ 22

Author(s):

C. R. Hirning ◽

D. G. Burke

Keyword(s):

Cross Sections ◽

Attenuation Factor ◽

Matrix Elements ◽

Coriolis Coupling ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Plane Detector ◽

Scientific Laboratory ◽

Coupling Calculation ◽

Good Agreement ◽

Focal Plane Detector

Levels in the deformed even–even nucleus 152Sm have been populated by the (t,α) reaction using beams of 15 MeV tritons from the model FN tandem Van de Graaff accelerator at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. For the initial experiments in the series the reaction products were analyzed in an Elbek magnetic spectrograph and detected with nuclear emulsions. Those done later made use of the Q3D magnetic spectrometer and helical-cathode focal plane detector. On the basis of levels observed in adjacent odd-Z nuclei and some previous (α,2nγ) results, a rotational band built on the Kπ = 5−, 5/2+[413] + 5/2−[532] two-quasiparticle state has been identified. A Coriolis coupling calculation has been done, which gives good agreement with experimental energies and cross sections when an attenuation factor of 0.31 is used for the Coriolis matrix elements.

Simulating Radio Element Release and Water-Rock Interactions During Dissolution of Borosilicate Glass

MRS Proceedings ◽

10.1557/proc-506-391 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 506 ◽

Author(s):

A V Chambers ◽

T G Heath ◽

C M Linklater ◽

A M Thompson ◽

R M Wiggin

Keyword(s):

Experimental Data ◽

Borosilicate Glass ◽

Glass Surface ◽

Major Elements ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Exchange Reactions ◽

Model Calculations ◽

Dissolution Behaviour ◽

Uranium Plutonium ◽

ABSTRACTA model has been developed that can simulate in some detail the chemistry of the glass dissolution process. To test the performance of the model, calculations were carried out to predict the dissolution behaviour of a commercial borosilicate glass. The model could reproduce accurately the behaviour of major elements released from the glass, although in the case of silica, ‘sorption’ at the glass surface was required in order to achieve good agreement with experimental data. Secondary reaction products sepiolite, montmorillonite, analcime and goethite were predicted to form. Further calculations were carried out to simulate the release of radioelements (caesium, strontium, uranium, plutonium) from within the dissolving glass. The precipitation of insoluble solids was the only mechanism included in the model to retain the radioelements at the glass surface. For plutonium, there was good agreement between model predictions and available experimental data. For caesium and strontium, the model underestimated the amount of retention at the glass surface and additional retention mechanisms, such as coprecipitation or ion exchange reactions involving newly-formed clay-type minerals at the glass surface must be invoked to explain experimental observation.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A Physical and Engineering Sciences ◽

Energy output of insensitive high explosives by measuring the detonation products

10.1098/rsta.1992.0039 ◽

1992 ◽

Vol 339 (1654) ◽

pp. 335-343

Keyword(s):

Ambient Pressure ◽

Physical Structure ◽

Carbon Residue ◽

Energy Output ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Detonation Products ◽

High Explosives ◽

Gaseous Reaction ◽

Cyclotrimethylene Trinitramine ◽

Detonation Reaction

The detonation products of high explosives are dependent on pressure and also on the confinement under which the detonation reaction proceeds. To determine the detonation products of less sensitive high explosives such as trinitrotoluene/ nitroguanidine and polymer bonded explosive charges with polybutadiene binder containing cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, together with or without aluminium, experiments have been performed in a stainless steel chamber of a volume of 1.5 m 3 . These experiments were done under different ambient argon pressures up to 0.3 MPa. Gaseous reaction products were analysed by mass spectrometry and chemiluminescence analysis. Solid reaction products were analysed for measuring the carbon residue or unreacted aluminium. It was found that the detonation products were highly dependent on the ambient pressure of argon. The most important changes of the reaction products and therefore also of the energy output were found between vacuum and atmospheric pressure of argon. With increasing pressure, H 2 and CO decrease and CO 2 , H 2 , C 8 , NH 3 , HCN and CH 4 increase together with the reaction enthalpy. By analysing the physical structure of the carbon residue, diamonds have been observed between 4 and 7 nm in diameter.

Zur Abscheidung von Methyljodid and Silberzeolithen / Investigations on the Fixation of Methyl Iodide by Silver Zeolites

Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A ◽

10.1515/zna-1972-8-928 ◽

1972 ◽

Vol 27 (8-9) ◽

pp. 1323-1328 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

C. Donner ◽

T. Tamberg

Keyword(s):

Gas Chromatography ◽

Infrared Spectroscopy ◽

Water Content ◽

Methyl Iodide ◽

Silver Ions ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Total Fixation ◽

Heat Treated ◽

Alkyl Iodides ◽

Abstract Alkyl iodides especially methyl iodide from the offgas of reactors and of reprocessing plants are difficult to remove.In earlier investigations it was shown that silver zeolites are qualified for a total fixation of methyl iodide, only when these sieves were exhaustively loaded with silver ions.In order to explain why only exhaustively loaded silver zeolites of type X are able to remove methyl iodide completely from the air, the reaction products from the chemisorption reaction were identified. The proportion of the silver ions that had reacted was calculated.Exhaustively loaded Ag-LMS-X pellets heat-treated at 400 °C (water content 0.94% by wt.) react with CH3I to form dimethylether.If the same pellets were gently dried with P2O5 (water content 15% by wt.) dimethylether and methanol were the products.The identification was done by gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy.The chemisorption reaction can be described in the following way:a) CH3I + HOH+Ag+ →AgI + CH3OH + H+b) CH3I + CH3OH+Ag+ → AgI + CH3OCH3 + H+If only small concentrations of methyl-iodide and an excess of water vapour are present only methanol is expected.The experimental results are in good agreement with the assumptions.

MODELING OF ELASTIC-PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF ELEMENTS OF SPATIAL STRUCTURES DURING PULSE INTERACTION WITH FLUID BASED ON THE GODUNOV'S METHOD OF INCREASED ACCURACY

Problems of Strength and Plasticity ◽

10.32326/1814-9146-2019-81-4-488-499 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 81 (4) ◽

pp. 488-499

Author(s):

Wang Cheng ◽

Yang Tonghui ◽

Li Wan ◽

Tao Li ◽

M.H. Abuziarov ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Experimental Data ◽

Shock Waves ◽

Elastoplastic Deformation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Numerical Results ◽

Two Dimensional ◽

Wave Processes ◽

Detonation Products ◽

Comparison Of The Results ◽

The spatial problem of internal explosive loading of an elastoplastic cylindrical container filled with water in Eulerian - Lagrangian variables using multigrid algorithms is considered. A defining system of three-dimensional equations of the dynamics of gas, fluid, and elastoplastic medium is presented. For numerical modeling, a modification of S.K. Godunov scheme of the increased accuracy for both detonation products and liquids, and elastoplastic container is used. At the moving contact boundaries “detonation products - liquid”, “liquid - deformable body”, the exact solution of the Riemann's problem is used. A time dependent model is used to describe the propagation of steady-state detonation wave through an explosive from an initiation region. In both cases, the initiation of detonation occurs at the center of the charge. Two problems have been solved: the first task for the aisymmetric position of the charge, the second for the charge shifted relative to the axis of symmetry. In the first task, the processes are two-dimensional axisymmetric in nature, in the second task, the processes are essentially three-dimensional. A comparison is made of the results of calculations of the first problem using a three-dimensional method with a solution using a previously developed two-dimensional axisymmetric method and experimental data. Good agreement is observed between the numerical results for the maximum velocities and circumferential strains obtained by various methods and experimental data. There is good agreement between the numerical results obtained by various methods and the known experimental data. Comparison of the results of solving the first and second problems shows a significant effect of the position of the charge on the wave processes in the liquid, the processes of loading the container and its elastoplastic deformation. The dynamic behavior of a gas bubble with detonation products is analyzed. A significant deviation of the bubble shape from the spherical one, caused by the action of shock waves reflected from the structure, is shown. Comparison of the results of solving the first and second problems showed a significant effect of the charge position on wave processes in a liquid, the processes of loading a container and its elastoplastic deformation. In particular, in the second problem, shock waves of higher amplitude are observed in the liquid when reflected from the walls of the container.

Carbonitriding: kinetic modeling of ammonia and acetylene decomposition at high temperature and low pressure

Matériaux & Techniques ◽

10.1051/mattech/2018033 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 106 (1) ◽

pp. 103 ◽

Author(s):

Elena Vyazmina ◽

Jie Sheng ◽

Simon Jallais ◽

Lucas Bustamante-Valencia ◽

Pierre Bruchet ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Metal Surface ◽

Kinetic Modeling ◽

Industrial Process ◽

Low Pressure ◽

Reaction Products ◽

Polycyclic Aromatic ◽

The One ◽

Two Stages ◽

And Diffusion ◽

The process of carbonitriding is similar to the process of carburization yet with additional ammonia to increase the hardness of the metal surface. Carbonitriding is performed at approximately 850 °C–880 °C, which is lower compare to carburizing and low pressure (10–50 mbar). The process consists of two stages: decomposition of ammonia and diffusion of “activated nitrogen”, and decomposition of acetylene and diffusion of carbon. The decomposition of acetylene is a very complex phenomenon, depending on the temperature, pressure and residence time (the time of presence of acetylene in a furnace). Different reaction products form: small molecules (H2, CH4, C2H4, C6H6, etc.), fine-crystalline graphite (the one that diffuses into the metal surface), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), soot etc. The current investigation is based on detailed kinetic modeling (using Chemkin 17.1) of the acetylene decomposition in the atmosphere of a reactor. For this modeling three different comprehensive mechanisms from the literature are considered: the mechanism of K. Norinaga (including 227 species, 827 reactions), the mechanism of T. Bensabath (including 364 species, 1245 reactions) and the mechanism of C. Saggese (including 350 species, more than 10,000 reactions). Comparison of simulation results with experimental data from the literature showed good agreement, demonstrating their applicability for modeling of industrial process. A parametric study suggests the best parameters for acetylene decomposition in a furnace.

Diameter Effect on Detonation Velocity of Ammonium Nitrate and Activated Carbon Mixtures

Materials Science Forum ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.566.101 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 566 ◽

pp. 101-106 ◽

Author(s):

Atsumi Miyake ◽

Hidefumi Kobayashi ◽

Hiroshi Echigoya ◽

Katsumi Katoh ◽

Shiro Kubota ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Activated Carbon ◽

Ammonium Nitrate ◽

Detonation Velocity ◽

Stoichiometric Composition ◽

Steel Tube ◽

Detonation Properties ◽

Charge Diameter ◽

Tube Test ◽

Predicted Values ◽

To obtain a better understanding of detonation properties of ammonium nitrate (AN) and activated carbon (AC) mixtures, steel tube test with several diameters was carried out for various compositions of powdered AN and AC mixtures and the influence of the charge diameter on the detonation velocity was investigated. The results of test indicated that the detonation velocity increased with the increase of the charge diameter. The experimentally observed values were far below the theoretically predicted values made by the thermohydrodynamic CHEETAH code and they showed so-called non-ideal detonation. The extrapolated detonation velocity of stoichiometric composition to the infinite diameter showed a good agreement with the theoretical value.

Dispersion of the detonation products of a condensed explosive with solid inclusions

Combustion Explosion and Shock Waves ◽

10.1007/bf00783721 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 29 (5) ◽

pp. 638-641 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

V. S. Lanovets ◽

V. A. Levich ◽

N. K. Rogov ◽

Yu. V. Tunik ◽

K. N. Shamshev

Keyword(s):

Condensed Explosive ◽

Detonation Products